The birds-of-paradise are members of the family Paradisaeidae of the order Passeriformes. They are found mainly in New Guinea, as well as eastern Australia and the Maluku Islands. The family has 44 species in 17 genera. The members of this family are perhaps best known for the plumage of the males of the species, the majority of which are sexually dimorphic. The males of these species tend to have very long, elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings, tail, or head. For the most part, they are confined to dense rainforest habitats. The diet of all species is dominated by fruit and to a lesser extent arthropods. The birds-of-paradise have a variety of breeding systems, ranging from monogamy to lek-type polygamy. Notably, the long tail feather of the Greater bird-of-paradise is used as a decorative element in the Shripech, the royal crown of Nepalese monarchs.
A number of species are threatened by hunting and habitat loss.
Taxonomy The family Paradisaeidae is introduced (as Paradiseidae) in 1825 with Paradisaea as the type genus by the English naturalist William Swainson. For many years the birds-of-paradise were treated as being closely related to the bowerbirds. Today while both are treated as being part of the Australasian lineage Corvida, the two are now thought to be only distantly related. The closest evolutionary relatives of the birds-of-paradise are the crow and jay family Corvidae, the monarch flycatchers Monarchidae, and the Australian mudnesters Struthideidae.
A 2009 study examining the mitochondrial DNA of all species to examine the relationships within the family and to its nearest relatives estimated that the family emerged 24 million years ago, earlier than previous estimates. The study identified five clades within the family, and placed the split between the first clade, which contains the monogamous manucodes and paradise-crow, and all the other birds-of-paradise, to be 10 million years ago. The second clade includes the parotias and the King of Saxony bird-of-paradise. The third clade provisionally contains several genera, including Seleucidis, the Drepanornis sicklebills, Semioptera, Ptiloris, and Lophorina, although some of these are questionable. The fourth clade includes the Epimachus sicklebills, Paradigalla, and the astrapias. The final clade includes the Cicinnurus and the Paradisaea birds-of-paradise.
The exact limits of the family have been the subject of revision as well. The three species of satinbird (the genera Cnemophilus and Loboparadisea) were treated as a subfamily of the birds-of-paradise, Cnemophilinae. In spite of differences in the mouth, foot morphology, and nesting habits they remained in the family until a 2000 study moved them to a separate family closer to the berrypeckers and longbills (Melanocharitidae). The same study found that the Macgregor's bird-of-paradise was actually a member of the large Australasian honeyeater family. In addition to these three species, a number of systematically enigmatic species and genera have been considered potential members of this family. The two species of melampitta, also from New Guinea, have been linked with the birds-of-paradise,Sibley, C.G. & Ahlquist, J. (1987). "The Lesser Melampitta is a Bird of Paradise" Emu 87: 66–68 but their relationships remain uncertain, more recently being linked with the Australian mudnesters. The silktail of Fiji has been linked with the birds-of-paradise many times since its discovery, but never formally assigned to the family. Recent molecular evidence now places the species with the fantails.
Phylogeny A genus level phylogeny of the family has been determined by Martin Irestedt and collaborators.
Species
genus: Lycocorax Halmahera paradise-crow, Lycocorax pyrrhopterus Obi paradise-crow, Lycocorax obiensis
genus: Manucodia Glossy-mantled manucode, Manucodia ater Jobi manucode, Manucodia jobiensis Crinkle-collared manucode, Manucodia chalybatus Curl-crested manucode, Manucodia comrii
genus: Phonygammus Trumpet manucode, Phonygammus keraudrenii
genus: Paradigalla Long-tailed paradigalla, Paradigalla carunculata Short-tailed paradigalla, Paradigalla brevicauda
genus: Astrapia Arfak astrapia, Astrapia nigra Splendid astrapia, Astrapia splendidissima Ribbon-tailed astrapia, Astrapia mayeri Stephanie's astrapia, Astrapia stephaniae Huon astrapia, Astrapia rothschildi
genus: Parotia Western parotia, Parotia sefilata Carola's parotia, Parotia carolae Bronze parotia, Parotia berlepschi Lawes's parotia, Parotia lawesii Eastern parotia, Parotia helenae (Disputed) Wahnes's parotia, Parotia wahnesi
genus: Pteridophora King of Saxony bird-of-paradise, Pteridophora alberti
genus: Lophorina Greater lophorina, Lophorina latipennis Vogelkop lophorina, Lophorina superba Lesser lophorina, Lophorina minor
genus: Ptiloris Magnificent riflebird, Ptiloris magnificus Growling riflebird, Ptiloris intercedens Paradise riflebird, Ptiloris paradiseus Victoria's riflebird, Ptiloris victoriae
genus: Epimachus Black sicklebill, Epimachus fastosus Brown sicklebill, Epimachus meyeri
genus: Drepanornis Black-billed sicklebill, Drepanornis albertisi Pale-billed sicklebill, Drepanornis bruijnii
genus: Cicinnurus King bird-of-paradise, Cicinnurus regius Magnificent bird-of-paradise, Cicinurrus magnificus/Diphyllodes magnificus Wilson's bird-of-paradise, Cicinnurus respublica/Diphyllodes respublica
genus: Diphyllodes Magnificent bird-of-paradise, Diphyllodes magnificus Wilson's bird-of-paradise, Diphyllodes respublica
genus: Semioptera Standardwing bird-of-paradise, Semioptera wallacii
genus: Seleucidis Twelve-wired bird-of-paradise, Seleucidis melanoleucus
genus: Paradisaea Lesser bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea minor Greater bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea apoda Raggiana bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea raggiana Goldie's bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea decora Red bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea rubra Emperor bird-of-paradise, Paradisaea guilielmi
genus: Paradisornis Blue bird-of-paradise, Paradisornis rudolphi
Hybrids
Hybridisation occurs occasionally among birds-of-paradise, including between species from different genera. Species can hybridise despite substantial differences in morphology and courtship behaviour.
In 1930, the German ornithologist Erwin Stresemann systematically reviewed rare birds-of-paradise that had previously been described as distinct species and concluded that many were actually hybrids. By examining skins of these controversial specimens, he identified their likely parental species from their intermediate morphologies. Many of the 'species' described in the late 19th and early 20th centuries are now generally considered to be hybrids, with genomic analyses published in 2024 largely supporting earlier morphological assessments. Sequencing of museum specimens revealed that most were first-generation (F1) hybrids, while two were identified as intergeneric backcrosses, showing that some intergeneric hybrids can themselves reproduce and facilitate gene flow between species.
Description
Birds-of-paradise are closely related to the corvids. Birds-of-paradise range in size from the king bird-of-paradise at and to the curl-crested manucode at and . The male black sicklebill, with its long tail, is the longest species at . In most species, the tails of the males are larger and longer than those of the females, the differences ranging from slight to extreme. The wings are rounded and, in some species, structurally modified on the males in order to make sound. There is considerable variation in the family with regard to bill shape. Bills may be long and decurved, as in the sicklebills and riflebirds, or small and slim like the Astrapias. As with body size, bill size varies between the sexes, although species where the females have larger bills than the males are more common, particularly in the insect-eating species.
Plumage variation between the sexes is closely related to the breeding system. The manucodes and paradise-crow, which are socially monogamous, are sexually monomorphic. So are the two species of Paradigalla, which are polygamous. All these species have generally black plumage with varying amounts of green and blue iridescence. They are even now considered biofluorescent. A study in the Royal Society Open Science found that the birds absorb light at high-energy wavelengths, then re-emit it at low-energy ones, visible to other birds as a bright yellow-green.The female plumage of the dimorphic species is typically drab to blend in with their habitat, unlike the bright attractive colours found on the males. Younger males of these species have female-like plumage, and sexual maturity takes a long time, with the full adult plumage not being obtained for up to seven years. This affords the younger males protection from predators of more subdued colours and also reduces hostility from adult males.
Distribution and habitat The centre of bird-of-paradise diversity is the large island of New Guinea; all but two genera are found in New Guinea and Australia. Those other two are the monotypic genera Lycocorax and Semioptera, both of which are endemic to the Maluku Islands, to the west of New Guinea. Of the four riflebirds in the genus Ptiloris, two are endemic to the coastal forests of eastern Australia, one occurs in both Australia and New Guinea, and one is only found in New Guinea. The only other genus to have a species outside New Guinea is Phonygammus, one representative of which is found in the extreme north of Queensland. The remaining species are restricted to New Guinea and some of the surrounding islands. Many species have very small ranges, particularly those with restricted habitat types such as mid-montane forest (like the black sicklebill) or island endemics (like the Wilson's bird-of-paradise).
The majority of birds-of-paradise live in tropical forests, including rainforests, swamps, and moss forests, nearly all of them solitary tree dwellers.Honolulu Zoo , Birds of Paradise, accessed Feb 3, 2011 Several species have been recorded in coastal mangroves. The southernmost species, the paradise riflebird of Australia, lives in sub-tropical and temperate wet forests. As a group the manucodes are the most plastic in their habitat requirements; in particular, the glossy-mantled manucode, which inhabits both forest and open savanna woodland. Mid-montane habitats are the most commonly occupied habitat, with thirty of the forty species occurring in the altitudinal band.
Behaviour and ecology
Diet and feeding
The diet of the birds-of-paradise is dominated by fruit and arthropods, although small amounts of nectar and small vertebrates may also be taken. The ratio of the two food types varies by species, with fruit predominating in some species, and arthropods dominating the diet in others. The ratio of the two will affect other aspects of the behaviour of the species; for example, frugivorous species tend to feed in the forest canopy, whereas insectivores may feed lower down in the middle storey. Frugivores are more social than the insectivores, which are more solitary and territorial.