Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions to solve or address relevant and problematic social issues, guided by a conception and often implemented by programs. These policies govern various aspects of life, including education, health care, employment, finance, economics, transportation, and society as a whole.Hoffman-Miller, Patricia. "Public Policy". Salem Press Encyclopedia, 2022 The implementation of public policy is known as public administration. Public policy can be considered the sum of a government's direct and indirect activities and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways.
They are created and/or enacted on behalf of the public, typically by a government. Sometimes they are made by Non-state actors or are made in co-production with communities or citizens, which can include potential experts, scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use some of their results. They are typically made by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic polities) currently elected politicians. Therefore, the "policy process is a complex political process in which there are many actors: elected politicians, political party leaders, pressure groups, civil servants, publicly employed professionals, judges, non-governmental organizations, international agencies, academic experts, journalists and even sometimes citizens who see themselves as the passive recipients of policy."
A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle", which was first discussed by the political scientist Harold Laswell in his book The Decision Process: Seven Categories of Functional Analysis, published in 1956. The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is agenda setting, policy formulation, legitimation, implementation, and evaluation. "It divides the policy process into a series of stages, from a notional starting point at which policymakers begin to think about a policy problem to a notional end point at which a policy has been implemented, and policymakers think about how successful it has been before deciding what to do next."
Officials considered that policymakers bear responsibility for advancing the interests of various stakeholders. Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task. Government action is the decisions, policies, and actions taken by governments, which can have a significant impact on individuals, organizations, and society at large. Regulations, subsidies, taxes, and spending plans are just a few of the various shapes it might take. Government action aims to achieve certain social or economic objectives, such as fostering economic growth, reducing inequality, or safeguarding the environment.
Varying conceptions of public policy Public policy can be conceptualized in various ways, depending on the speaker's or author's purposes and the characteristics of the situation at hand.
One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those who see it primarily in terms of ideas (principles and plans of action) and those who see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested – where intentions are confused and/or disguised – it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case, it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens.
David Easton in the USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas: "If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools, both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of the policy." Easton characterized public policy as "a web of decisions and actions that allocates values".
Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney: "the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes".
An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by Richard Titmuss: "the principles that govern action directed towards given ends". Titmuss' perspective was particularly one of social contract ethics.
In 2020, Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as "an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem, guided by a conception" (Lassance, 2020: 7). Lassance's perspective and concerns are grounded in a theory of change or program theory which he believes can be empirically tested.
One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy is that of Thomas R. Dye, according to whom "public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do" (Dye, 1972: 2). Although widely used, Dye's concept is also criticized as being an empty concept. Dye himself admitted that his concept "discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy - we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do".
In an institutionalist view, the foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations. Further foundational aspects include both judicial interpretations and regulations, which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively, serves and supports governmental institutions and policies, and encourages active citizenship.
In his book Advanced Introduction to Public Policy, B. Guy Peters defines public policy as "the set of activities that governments engage in for the purpose of changing their economy and society", effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in to benefit or impact the electorate in some way. In another definition, author B. Dente in his book Understanding Policy Decisions explains public policy as "a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem, i.e., a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need, demand or opportunity for public intervention. Its quality is measured by the capacity to create public value."
Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives". Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions". Transformative constitutions of the Global South consider judicial actions for Public policy as paramount, since the political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people.
Public policy focuses on the decisions that produce the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of a public health service, the administration of a school system, and the organization of a defense force. The directly measurable policy outputs, "actions actually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements," can be differentiated from the broader policy outcomes, "focus[ing] on a policy's societal consequences."
In the United States, this concept refers not only to the results of policies but, more broadly, to the decision-making and analysis behind governmental decisions. As an academic discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of major universities throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students is the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.
Much of public policy concerns the evaluation of decision-making in governments and public bureaucracies.
Frameworks of public policy
Public policy frameworks provide systematic approaches to policy implementation, analysis, and improvement, offering insights into the roles of actors, institutional dynamics, and the broader context that influences decisions.
Policy Cycle Framework
Proposed by Harold Lasswell, the policy cycle framework is one of the oldest public policy frameworks. It outlines a sequence of stages in the policymaking process: agenda-setting, policy formulation, implementation, and evaluation. This framework emphasizes the iterative and dynamic nature of policymaking, enabling a structured analysis of how policies evolve.Lasswell, H. (1951). The Policy Orientation. In D. Lerner & H. Lasswell (Eds.), The policy sciences: Recent developments in scope and method (pp. 3–15). Stanford University Press.
Multiple Streams Framework
Developed by John Kingdon, this framework focuses on the convergence of three streams—problems, policies, and politics—to create a "policy window" for change. Kingdon emphasizes the critical role of timing and policy entrepreneurs in shaping policy outcomes.Kingdon, J. W. (1984). Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (pp. 164–208). Longman.
Punctuated Equilibrium Theory
Proposed by Frank Baumgartner and Bryan Jones, this theory explains periods of policy stability punctuated by sudden, significant changes. According to Baumgartner and Jones, these shifts occur due to interactions between institutional dynamics and issue framing.Baumgartner, F. R., & Jones, B. D. (1993). Agendas and Instability in American Politics (pp. 3–24). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Policy Feedback Theory
Suzanne Mettler and Mallory SoRelle advanced the policy feedback theory, which examines how existing policies influence future political and social dynamics. Their framework highlights the feedback loops that policies create, shaping subsequent political action and societal responses.Mettler, S., & SoRelle, M. (2017). Policy feedback theory. In C. M. Weible & P. A. Sabatier (Eds.), Theories of the Policy Process (4th ed., pp. 131–171). Routledge.
Advocacy Coalition Framework
Introduced by Paul Sabatier, this framework explores how coalitions of actors with shared beliefs influence policy processes over extended periods. Sabatier's work is particularly valuable for understanding policy change in complex and contested policy areas.Sabatier, P. A. (1993). Policy has changed over a decade or more. In P. A. Sabatier & H. C. Jenkins-Smith (Eds.), Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach (pp. 13–40). Westview Press.
Non-Linear Public Policy Framework
Proposed by Sharique Hassan Manazir, the non-linear public policy framework challenges traditional stage-based models of policymaking by emphasising complexity, feedback loops, and interactions among multiple actors. Unlike linear frameworks such as the policy cycle, this approach views policymaking as a dynamic and evolving process shaped by socio-political contexts, institutional constraints, and technological systems. It highlights how policies are continuously reconfigured through interactions between state and non-state actors, rather than progressing through fixed sequential stages. The framework enables a more realistic analysis of contemporary governance, particularly in complex and rapidly changing policy environments.Manazir, S. H. (2023). Reimagining public policy formulation and analysis: A comprehensive theoretical framework for public policy. Discover Global Society, 1, 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-023-00018-4
Public policy making and implementation