The military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower began in June 1911, when Eisenhower took the oath as a cadet at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. Ike commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army in June 1915, as part of "the class the stars fell on". He rose through the ranks over the next thirty years and became one of the most important Allied generals of World War II, being promoted to General of the Army in 1944. Eisenhower retired from the military after winning the 1952 presidential election, though his rank as General of the Army was restored by an act of Congress in March 1961.
After graduating from the United States Military Academy in 1915, Eisenhower was assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment at Fort Sam Houston. He served in the continental United States throughout World War I, ending the war as the commander of a battalion that trained tank crews. After the war, he served as part of a Transcontinental Motor Convoy that traveled across the continental United States. In 1922, he was transferred to the Panama Canal Zone, where he served under General Fox Conner. He then served on the American Battle Monuments Commission under the command of General John J. Pershing. In 1929, he became the executive officer to General George Van Horn Moseley, who served on the staff of Assistant Secretary of War Frederick Huff Payne. In 1935, Eisenhower accompanied General Douglas MacArthur to the Philippines, where they served as military advisers charged with developing the Philippine Army. Eisenhower returned to the United States in 1939 and took part in the Louisiana Maneuvers as the chief of staff to General Walter Krueger.
After the United States entered World War II, General George C. Marshall assigned Eisenhower to the War Plans Division in Washington, D.C. Eisenhower became the commander of American forces in Britain in June 1942 and was assigned to lead Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa. After the success of Operation Torch, Eisenhower led the successful Allied invasion of Tunisia, forcing the surrender of all Axis forces in May 1943. Eisenhower led the opening phases of the Italian campaign, but was subsequently assigned to lead the Allied invasion of Western Europe in December 1943. He served as the supreme commander of Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy, and took command of subsequent operations in France. Following the success of Operation Overlord, the Allies quickly took control of much of Western Europe, but the Germans launched a major counter-attack in the Battle of the Bulge. German resistance quickly collapsed following the Allied victory in that battle, and Eisenhower accepted the surrender of Germany in May 1945.
After the war, Eisenhower served as the commander of the American zone of occupation in Germany. In November 1945, he succeeded Marshall as the chief of staff of the United States Army. Eisenhower left active duty in 1948 to become the president of Columbia University, but rejoined the army in 1951 to become the first supreme commander of NATO. He left the army once again in 1952 to run for President of the United States; his presidential candidacy was successful and he served as president from January 1953 to January 1961.
Early years, 1915–1918
Eisenhower graduated with the United States Military Academy's class of 1915, "the class the stars fell on", ranked 61st in a class of 164. A knee injured playing football and aggravated while horseback riding that could have caused the government to later give Eisenhower a medical discharge and disability pension, almost caused the army not to commission him after graduation. This was acceptable to Eisenhower, who was curious about gaucho life and began planning a trip to Argentina. West Point's chief medical officer offered to recommend him for a commission in the Coast Artillery, but Eisenhower viewed it as offering "a minimum of excitement" and preferred to become a civilian. The doctor then offered to recommend Eisenhower for a commission if he agreed not to seek appointment to the Cavalry. Eisenhower intended to become an Infantry officer, so he readily agreed. Because of the injury, West Point's academic board recommended against commissioning Eisenhower, but the doctor interceded successfully with the War Department and Eisenhower was commissioned as a second lieutenant in September 1915.
Eisenhower requested to serve in the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands, but was assigned to the 19th Infantry Regiment at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. While stationed there, Eisenhower served as the football coach for St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University. He also met and married Mamie Doud, the daughter of a meat-processing facility owner from Denver, Colorado. Eisenhower performed security duties along the Mexican Border during the Pancho Villa Expedition and received his first command assignment when he was chosen to lead the 19th Infantry's Company F.
World War I had broken out in Europe in 1914, and the U.S. joined the war on the side of the Entente Powers in April 1917. Like many 19th Infantry personnel, Eisenhower was promoted and assigned to the newly created 57th Infantry Regiment, where he served as the regimental supply officer. In September 1917, he was assigned to train reserve officers, first at Fort Oglethrope and then at Fort Leavenworth.
In February 1918, he was transferred to Camp Meade, Maryland, where he was assigned command of the 301st Heavy Tank Battalion. By the beginning of 1918, the United States Army did not have a single operational tank, but the battalion planned to use British-provided Mark VI tanks after arriving in Europe. The 301st was initially scheduled to be deployed to Europe in early 1918, but in March 1918 the Tank Corps was established as an independent branch of the army, and Eisenhower's unit was assigned for further training at Camp Colt. After months of rudimentary training, the first tank, a Renault FT, arrived in June 1918. In September, the "Spanish flu" epidemic hit the camp, ultimately killing 175 of the roughly 10,000 men under his command. In October, Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and two weeks later he received orders to deploy to Europe. Shortly before the deployment, the war ended with the signing of the Armistice of 11 November 1918. Though Eisenhower and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills, as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel. Despite his success as an organizer and trainer, his World War II rivals often sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his lack of combat experience.
Between wars
Tank warfare and transcontinental convoy, 1918–1921
With the end of World War I, the United States dramatically cut back military spending, and the number of active duty personnel in the army dropped from 2.4 million in late 1918 to about 150,000 in 1922. Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain, but was almost immediately promoted to the rank of major, the rank he held for the next sixteen years. Along with the rest of the Tank Corps, Eisenhower was assigned to Fort George G. Meade in Maryland. In 1919, he served on the Transcontinental Motor Convoy, an army vehicle exercise that traveled from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco at a pace of 5 mph. The convoy was designed both as a training event and as a way to publicize the need for better roads, and spurred many states to increase funding for road-building. Eisenhower's experience in the convoy would later influence his decision to help create the Interstate Highway System in the 1950s.
He then returned to his duties at Camp Meade, serving as executive officer and then as commander of the 305th Tank Brigade, which fielded Mark VIII tanks. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders; while Eisenhower commanded the 305th Tank Brigade, Patton commanded the 304th, which fielded the lighter Renault FT tank and was also based at Camp Meade. Their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors, who considered the new approach too radical and preferred to continue using tanks in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. After being threatened with a court-martial by General Charles S. Farnsworth, the chief of infantry, Eisenhower refrained from publishing theories that challenged existing tank doctrine. Although Secretary of War Newton D. Baker and Chief of Staff Peyton C. March both advocated for the continuation of the Tank Corps as an independent branch of the army, the National Defense Act of 1920 folded the Tank Corps into the infantry. In 1921 Army Inspector General Eli Helmick found that Eisenhower had improperly received $250.76 in housing allowance. Eisenhower claimed he had received the money with no intent to deceive, and he repaid it in full after Helmick made his finding. Helmick still pressed for a court-martial, and only the intervention of General Fox Conner, who told Pershing he wanted Eisenhower to serve as his executive officer in the Panama Canal Zone, saved Eisenhower from possible imprisonment and dismissal from the service. Though Conner saved Eisenhower's career, Eisenhower still received a written reprimand that became part of his military record.
Service under Conner and Pershing, 1922–1929
Between 1922 and 1939, Eisenhower served under a succession of talented generals – Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, and Douglas MacArthur. Accompanied by Mamie, he served as General Conner's executive officer in Panama from 1922 to 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory, including the campaigns of Napoleon, the American Civil War, and Carl von Clausewitz's On War. Conner also shared his experiences working with the French and British during World War I, emphasizing the importance of the "art of persuasion" when dealing with allies. Eisenhower later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Eisenhower was, "[He] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met." Conner would play a critical role in Eisenhower's career, often helping him gain choice assignments.
On Conner's recommendation, and ranked in the top 10% of active-duty majors, in 1925–26 Eisenhower attended the Command and General Staff College (CGS) at Fort Leavenworth. He was worried that he would be disadvantaged by not having attended Infantry School like most of his classmates, but Conner assured him that his study in Panama was good preparation; Eisenhower graduated first in his CGS class of 245 officers. The army considered making him the head of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps program at a major university (Eisenhower would also have served as its football coach, doubling his pay) or a CGS faculty member, but assigned him as executive officer of the 24th Infantry Regiment at Fort Benning, Georgia until 1927. Eisenhower disliked serving with the Buffalo Soldiers regiment; many white officers viewed serving in an all-black unit as punishment for poor performance.