The Border or Upper Tami languages are an independent family of Papuan languages in Malcolm Ross's version of the Trans–New Guinea proposal.
Unlike the neighboring Sepik languages and many other Papuan language families of northern New Guinea, Border languages do not have grammatical gender or number (dual and plural forms).
Name The Border family is named after the Indonesia–Papua New Guinea border, which it spans. Other than the Border languages, the Skou, Senagi, Pauwasi, Anim, and Yam families also span the border between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
Classification history Cowan (1957) tentatively proposed a "Tami" family, named after the Tami River, that included the modern Border and Sko language families. Some of the previously unclassified languages turned out to be Sko and were added to that family; the remainder (including the languages of the upper Tami) constitute the Border family.
Languages Laycock classified Morwap as an isolate but noted pronominal similarities with Border. Ross included Morwap in Border but noted that they do not appear to share any lexical similarities. However, he had quite poor Morwap data. Usher included it as a branch of Border.
Foley (2018) Foley (2018) provides the following classification.
Border family Taikat: Auyi, Taikat Bewani: Ainbai, Kilmeri, Ningera, Pagi Waris: Amanab, Auwe (Simog), Daonda, Imonda, Manem, Senggi (Viid), Waina (Sowanda), Waris
Usher (2020) The Border languages are:New Guinea World
Usher does not mention Ningera and subsumes it into another language.
Pronouns The pronouns that Ross (2005) reconstructs for Proto-Border are the following:
{| class=wikitable |- | rowspan=2| I || rowspan=2| *ka || exclusive we || *kia- ? |- | inclusive we || *bile ? |- | thou || *je || you || ? |- | s/he || *ihe || they || *ihe- ?
Foley (2018) lists pronouns for the following five Border languages.
|+ Border family pronouns ! !! Taikat !! Kilmeri !! Amanab !! Waris !! Imonda |- ! 1incl | || nuko || bi || pi || pəl |- ! 1excl | ku || ko || ka || ka || ka |- ! 2 | kebe || de ~ ne || ne || ye || ne |- ! 3 | yɛ || ki || ehe || hi || ehe
Cognates Border family cognates (Awyi, Taikat, Kilmeri, Waris, Imonda) listed by Foley (2018):
|+ Border family cognates ! gloss !! Awyi / Taikat !! Kilmeri !! Waris / Imonda |- | ‘bone’ || sagər || kili || kəl |- | ‘cloud’ || tik || || tik |- | ‘eat’ || na- || ni- || ne- |- | ‘egg’ || sur || su || sui |- | ‘eye’ || nondof || dob || nof |- | ‘house’ || ya || yip || yɛf |- | ‘moon’ || usɛ || wɪs || wɛs |- | ‘sun’ || kɛwom || || ɒkɒmba |- | ‘tongue’ || mariel || ber || məde |- | ‘tooth’ || || lu || lɒ |- | ‘tree’ || di || ri || ti |- | ‘water’ || obea || pu || po
Vocabulary comparison The following basic vocabulary words are from Voorhoeve (1971, 1975),Voorhoeve, C.L. "Miscellaneous Notes on Languages in West Irian, New Guinea". In Dutton, T., Voorhoeve, C. and Wurm, S.A. editors, Papers in New Guinea Linguistics No. 14. A-28:47-114. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1971. Voorhoeve, C.L. Languages of Irian Jaya: Checklist. Preliminary classification, language maps, wordlists. B-31, iv + 133 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. as cited in the Trans-New Guinea database.
The words cited constitute translation equivalents whether they are cognate (e.g. mogor, moŋla, moŋgola for “leg”) or not (e.g. nakan, past, bosok for “nose”).
{| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Awyi !! Taikat !! Manem !! Sowanda !! Viid !! Waris |- ! head | naŋger; naŋgər || bagər || bagar || mosok || repek || ku |- ! hair | jento; ta || bakta; tar; tat || ta || mog-tse; mog-tše || || tea; tɛa |- ! ear | keato || keat || kafŋe || oŋgok || aten || aŋku |- ! eye | najo; nayo || nondor || nof || rugok || now || nop |- ! nose | nubru || nakan || past || bosok || peŋe || lomus |- ! tooth | ka || kaembi || so || || nunalk || lelo |- ! tongue | marie || || mte || melik || ro || minde |- ! leg | malke || təka || mogor || miŋgak || moŋla || moŋgola |- ! louse | tu || || || kue || ku || ku |- ! dog | eəl; wŋl || ur || || ure; urê || wandr || unde |- ! pig | wot || wot || aŋ; ar || ogtse || sar mejan; sar meyan || mi |- ! bird | noj; noy || nor || joŋ jor; yoŋ; yor || teafu || || tuawa |- ! egg | suŋul || sur || suiŋ; suir || suk || tu || suul |- ! blood | keane || jafor; yafor || psoŋko || tap || nine || towol |- ! bone | sakər || sagər || kaŋ; kar || kek || ke || kəi; kəl |- ! skin | fəker || fager; fagɛr || tofŋo; tofro || lopok || kep || towol |- ! breast | mə̃ || mɛ || maŋ; mar || tot || mandr || tɛt |- ! tree | ti || di || ti || || ti || ti |- ! man | kir || kir || knigiŋ; knigir || owak || du || tənda |- ! woman | kuru || koraha || jaman || uŋwabe || jemena || ŋguabe |- ! sun | mentao || kewom; kɛwom || usam || okomba || pola || okumba |- ! moon | kuŋgəru || usɛ || wes || wules || wos || wɛs |- ! water | wobia; wobio || obea || pu || poa || po || po |- ! fire | tao || dow || saw || sue || tow || sue |- ! stone | ser || sər || suk || xun || kwondr || hon |- ! road, path | məŋgir || meo || monofo || mna || mona || muna |- ! name | || || || unha || || nabae |- ! eat | anɛ; na || na || na || nekem; nɛkɛm || na || ne |- ! one | maŋgua || ŋgoa; [ŋgoa] || gueno || moŋgoir || moŋgau || muŋasəl |- ! two | naŋger || || sampaŋ || sambaga || tambla || sambla
Migration history Between 200 and 250 years ago, Bewani-speakers rapidly expanded and migrated towards neighboring regions, which started off chain migrations among various peoples of the region. The migration of Bewani-speakers split up the territory of Kwomtari-speakers, and Fas was displaced to the swampy area of Utai (). The displaced Fas-speakers then expanded further east into One territory, which caused conflicts between the Fas and One peoples in the Kabore area ().
The Pagei, Bewani, Bo, and Ningera peoples expanded down the Pual River to displace speakers of Inner Skou and Serra Hills languages. Inner Skou speakers were then forced to migrate and discplaced Barupu/Warapu-speakers (Piore River branch). Bewani-speakers, however, could expand eastward into the lowland swampy areas occupied by speakers of Busa and Yale, who were themselves pushed out of the more fertile hills into the lowland swamps. Westward expansion of Bewani-speakers was halted by fighting in Kaure territory.
References
External links Border languages database at TransNewGuinea.org