The Rashtrakuta Empire () was an early medieval Indian empire ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Kanyakumari in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions.
The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapur, a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur and the rulers of Kannauj. The Achalpur clan was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas, and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an empire with the Kalaburagi region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753 AD.
At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Gurjaratra were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. This period, between the 8th and the 10th centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic Plains, with each of these empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. An Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh (851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world.Reu (1933), p39
Interpretations of some historians suggest that the only later kings of the dynasty were influenced by Jainism.Chopra et al. (1993), p.91 However, other historians contend their Jain affiliation was not a later development and that historical evidence shows they were devout followers of the Jain Dharma, and that successive kings continued their family's legacy of Jain patronage.Jain (1987), p.134Jaina (1951), p. xiiRice (1921), p. 82 During their rule, Jain monks, Jain mathematicians and Jain scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora in modern Maharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashi-Vishwanatha temple and the Jain~Narayana temple at Pattadakal in modern Karnataka, both of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
History
The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medieval inscriptions, ancient literature in the Pali language,Reu (1933), p1 contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit and Kannada and the notes of the Arab travellers.Kamath (2001), p72 It is uncertain if there is any connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India, and the Deccan, in the 6th and 7th centuries, and the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta (present-day Malkhed in the Kalaburagi district, Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries.Altekar (1934), pp1–32Reu (1933), pp6–9, pp47–53Kamath (2001), p72–74
Theories about the dynastic lineage (Surya Vamsa — Solar line and Chandra Vamsa — Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been put forward, based on the information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names such as "Rashtrika", epithets (Ratta, Rashtrakuta, Lattalura Puravaradhiswara), the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty, and clues from relics such as coins.Reu (1933), pp1–15 However, the origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty remains disputed, and the proposed ethnic origins of the dynasty include the Kannadiga,A Kannada dynasty was created in Berar under the rule of Badami Chalukyas (Altekar 1934, p21–26)Kamath 2001, p72–3Singh (2008), p556:"The community of the land tillers or agriculturists was known as Vokkaligas. The importance given to the cultivation of land is amply demonstrated by the fact that numerous tanks were dug and irrigation facilities were provided at various places. Some of the Rashtrakuta inscriptions found in the Banavasi province have the depiction of a plow. It is viewed that the Rashtrakutas were originally prosperous cultivators who later dominated the political scene. Some of the inscriptions refer to them as "Kutumbinah" which is interpreted as cultivators." Reddi,A.C. Burnell in Pandit Reu (1933), p4 the Maratha,C.V. Vaidya (1924), p171D.R.Bhandarkar in Reu, (1933), p1, p7 the tribes from the Punjab region,Hultzsch and Reu in Reu (1933), p2, p4 or other north western ethnic groups of India.J. F. Fleet in Reu (1933), p6Reu (1933), pp1–5
Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made the Kannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit (historians Sheldon Pollock and Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada),Kamath (2001), p73Pollock 2006, p332Houben(1996), p215Altekar (1934), p411–3Dalby (1998), p300 and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty.Sen (1999), pp380-381During the rule of the Rashtrakutas, literature in Kannada and Sanskrit flowered (Kamath 2001, pp 88–90)Even royalty of the empire took part in poetic and literary activities – Thapar (2003), p334Narasimhacharya (1988), pp17–18, p68 Though these Rashtrakutas were Kannadigas,Altekar (1934), pp21–24Possibly Dravidian Kannada origin (Karmarkar 1947 p26)Masica (1991), p45-46Rashtrakutas are described as Kannadigas from Lattaluru who encouraged the Kannada language (Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p87) they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well.
Early history The heart of the Rashtrakuta Empire included nearly all of Karnataka, Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that the feudatory King Dantidurga, who probably ruled from Achalapura in Berar (modern Elichpur in Maharashtra), defeated the great Karnatic army (referring to the army of the Badami Chalukyas) of Kirtivarman II of Badami in 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire.Reu (1933), p54From Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Badami Chalukya army Karnatabala (power of Karnata) (Kamath 2001, p57, p65)Altekar in Kamath (2001), p72 He then helped his son-in-law, Pallava King Nandivarman II regain Kanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras, and the rulers of Kalinga, Kosala and Srisailam.Sastri (1955), p141Thapar (2003), p333
Dantidurga's successor Krishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka and Konkan under his control.Sastri (1955), p143Sen (1999), p368 During the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between the Kaveri River and Central India.Desai and Aiyar in Kamath (2001), p75Reu (1933), p62Sen (1999), p370 He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated the Pratiharas and the Palas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought the Eastern Chalukyas and Gangas of Talakad under his control.The Rashtrakutas interfered effectively in the politics of Kannauj (Thapar 2003), p333 According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule.From the Karda inscription, a digvijaya (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p75)
Expansion
The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son, Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before.The ablest of the Rashtrakuta kings (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77) There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time.Modern Morkhandi (Mayurkhandi in Bidar district (Kamath 2001, p76)modern Morkhand in Maharashtra (Reu 1933, p65)Sooloobunjun near Ellora (Couseris in Altekar 1934, p48). Perhaps Elichpur remained the capital until Amoghavarsha I built Manyakheta. From the Wani-Dmdori, Radhanpur and Kadba plates, Morkhand in Maharashtra was only a military encampment, from the Dhulia and Pimpen plates it seems Nasik was only a seat of a viceroy, and the Paithan plates of Govinda III indicate that neither Latur nor Paithan was the early capital.(Altekar, 1934, pp47–48) During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and the Pala Emperor Dharmapala, the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges.Kamath 2001, MCC, p76From the Sanjan inscriptions, His military exploits have been compared to those of Alexander the Great and Arjuna of Mahabharata.Keay (2000), p199 Having conquered Kannauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarat, Kosala (Kaushal), Gangavadi, humbled the Pallavas of Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice in Vengi and received two statues as an act of submission from the king of Ceylon (one statue of the king and another of his minister). The Cholas, the Pandyas and the Kongu Cheras of Karur all paid him tribute.From the Nesari records (Kamath 2001, p76)Reu (1933), p65Sastri (1955), p144Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013), p95, Perumāḷs of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy: Political and Social Conditions of Kerala Under the Cēra Perumāḷs of Makōtai (c. AD 800 – AD 1124). Thrissur (Kerala): CosmoBooks As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar Coast. The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas from Cape Comorin to Kannauj and from Banaras to Bharuch."The victorious march of his armies had literally embraced all the territory between the Himalayas and Cape Comorin" (Altekar in Kamath 2001, p77)Sen (1999), p371
The successor of Govinda III, Amoghavarsha I made Manyakheta his capital and ruled a large empire. Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas' regal capital until the end of the empire.Which could put to shame even the capital of gods-From Karda plates (Altekar 1934, p47)A capital city built to excel that of Indra (Sastri, 1955, p4, p132, p146)Reu 1933, p71 He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts from feudatories and ministers. Amoghavarsha I made peace with the Western Ganga dynasty by giving them his two daughters in marriage, and then defeated the invading Eastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli and assumed the title Viranarayana.from the Cambay and Sangli records. The Bagumra record claims that Amoghavarsha saved the "Ratta" kingdom which was drowned in an "ocean of Chalukyas" (Kamath 2001, p78)Sastri (1955), p145 His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties. His era was an enriching one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors, Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit.Narasimhacharya (1988), p1 His Kavirajamarga is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics and Prashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language.Reu (1933), p38 Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperor Ashoka and called "Ashoka of the South".Panchamukhi in Kamath (2001), p80