The land area of Macau has tripled due to land reclamation. Macau's original territory consisted of the Macau Peninsula, including the offshore Ilha Verde, as well as the southern islands of Taipa and Coloane. Each of these areas has been expanded through reclamation. Additionally, the reclamation of the Cotai area between Taipa and Coloane combined them into a single landmass.
The first land reclamation efforts were small expansions to the Macau Peninsula, often filling in parts of shallow bays. More significant reclamation began in 1912, responding to the needs of a growing population. Expansion of the Macau Peninsula integrated Ilha Verde into the main landmass, while Taipa and Coloane also saw reclamation during this period. These initial reclamation projects continued until 1949, when the city entered an economic downturn.
A new period of large-scale reclamation began in 1984, with new land added to the peninsula, Taipa, and Coloane. Starting in 1989, the Macau International Airport was reclaimed east of Taipa, while the land between Taipa and Coloane was systematically reclaimed from 1989 until 2005, creating Cotai. The 21st century saw the initiation of the Macau New Urban Zone project, as well as the creation of a new island to support the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge.
The purpose of reclaimed land differs between periods. Expansion in the early 20th century provided residential and manufacturing space. Reclamations in the 1980s helped develop the tourism and gambling industries. While the reclamation has provided more space to the city, it has caused environmental damage such as the destruction of most of the city's coastal wetlands. More recent reclamations have included the development of new urban green spaces, in part to capture more rainwater.
Background
Land reclamation is a common response to a lack of land in coastal areas, being seen as a way to both alleviate existing urban pressures and create new economic opportunities. A lack of land is an old problem for Macau, which by the end of the 19th century already had little space remaining on the Macau Peninsula. Macau's status as a Portuguese colony also meant landward expansion into the hinterland was not possible for much of its history. The city has leased land from neighbouring Hengqin to host the University of Macau.
After large-scale land reclamation Macau is one of the most densely populated cities, with in 2021. Existing residential land is highly built up, with tall buildings and narrow streets, leading to new land being seen as essential for the development of the city. In addition to simply providing space, land reclamation can also shape terrain to suit the city's needs. In particular, the percentage of Macau that is flat land has significantly increased. For example, the large flat area needed for Macau International Airport was not present in the natural terrain.
Macau lies in a geologically stable area, with no recorded earthquakes above magnitude 5, which helps make land reclamation viable. Its waters are also heavily silted and often as shallow as , due to being near the mouth of the Pearl River. Land reclamation has evolved with technological changes. The first projects were small and relatively cheap, and sometimes privately funded. Larger reclamation in the early 20th century included development plans. As technology progressed, developments from the late 20th century were possible on an even greater scale. Since the start of the 20th century, there have been over 700 land reclamation projects of some kind in Macau.
History
+ Land reclamation projects at select points from 1912 to 2018. Detailed land use data exists only from 1975. Year Number of projects Reclaimed land (m2) 1936 71 2,465,277 1957 53 1,494,784 1975 66 683,574 1986 61 1,011,421 1991 58 1,594,576 1996 62 3,451,865 1999 60 2,366,866 2000 19 1,770,931 2001 15 339,009 2002 7 1,143,329 2003 26 407,611 2004 28 112,725 2005 19 797,884 2006 16 404,645 2007 10 732,528 2008 12 25,931 2009 16 332,067 2010 20 195,166 2011 35 189,645 2012 8 13,230 2013 7 381,608 2014 12 19,970 2015 14 220,293 2016 5 39,729 2017 5 492,082 2018 11 3,189,124 Total 716 23,875,870
At the time of initial Portuguese settlement in the 1500s, what is now the Macau Peninsula was a tidal island of about . The initially small population rapidly expanded. Natural sedimentation had led to the formation of a tombolo, connecting the island to the nearby mainland. This sandbar, only a few metres wide, eventually became the location of the border with Mainland China. Sedimentation also formed what is now the peninsula in the first place, as it originally formed from piles of sediment that formed small islands which later merged and now can be identified as the peninsula's hills. During the early Portuguese period this tombolo continued to collect sediment, turning the island into a peninsula.
In the second half of the 19th century, Portuguese authorities expanded their control across the peninsula and its nearby island of Ilha Verde, as well as to the large islands of Taipa and Coloane. Taipa itself was originally three close but distinct islands, although two merged naturally due to siltation before any artificial land reclamation. The overall land area of the territory after the expansion of Portuguese control was about .
Initial reclamations Some infilling between two roads occurred in 1850. The first dedicated land reclamation took place in 1863. This saw land created from the beach in front of the Macau Government Headquarters (then the Governor's residence), and the widening of the nearby coastal road. Subsequent reclamations created land from other shallow bays, including near Ilha Verde. Some of this reclamation was government ordered, others were due to private efforts.
Other early reclamation efforts in the mid-19th century included extensions to the Port of Macau area. This occurred during a period of economic stagnation, so the works were restricted to shallow waters and were not extensive. These increased the size of the harbour and created new quays. Further expansion of the harbour continued into the 20th century. To the northwest, a causeway was constructed to link Ilha Verde to the peninsula. Eventually the waters near Ilha Verde were completely filled in, creating what became known as the Inner Harbour and merging Ilha Verde with the main peninsula. This northwest reclamation alone created by 1910.
The Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking in 1887 clearly established Macau's legal status as a Portuguese colony, providing certainty that encouraged further development. By the 20th century, the urban area of Macau had expanded to encompass the entire peninsula. The total land area of Macau in 1912 was . That year saw the start of new port works, including significant land reclamation. Some material for reclamation was obtained by dredging the highly silted port. From 1919 to 1925, about of land was reclaimed, and reclamation in the northeast and northwest continued until the Second World War. A plan to develop coastal areas in the northeast, including the outer harbour, was implemented from 1923 to 1931. By 1927, the peninsula had effectively doubled in size. The reclamation of Fai Chi Kei was finished in 1933. Expansions of seawalls created new land, and new piers were created to expand shipping. From 1930, more land was also created near the Governor's residence.
The very shallow waters between the two islands of Taipa, already naturally accruing sediment through siltation, were reclaimed in 1919 to fully unite the islands. Taipa island was expanded from in 1919 to in 1927, while Coloane went from in 1910 to in 1927.
Systematic reclamation in the early 20th century was helped by increasing immigration from China, which provided a source of cheap labour. Reclamation planned in 1927 saw the construction of new harbour walls, as well as further expansion in the north of the peninsula. A bridge to Taipa and a more open border with China also reduced some pressure on existing land. However, the population continued to grow, especially during the Second World War as refugees fled from China.
By 1949, 40% of the peninsula was reclaimed land, which represented 14% of Macau's total land area. An economic downturn following the Second World War likely halted land expansion efforts, with no government records of reclamation taking place from 1949 to 1984. However, the causeway was built in the 1960s, connecting Taipa and Coloane. However, a small number of small-scale projects occurred in the peninsula, and some reclamation may also have taken place in 1964 in southwest Taipa. The pause in land reclamation was likely due to a combination of factors, including a poor relationship with China, the Portuguese Colonial War, and the Carnation Revolution. Existing land, however, continued to be developed.
1980s boom The establishment of diplomatic relations between Portugal and China in 1979 eventually led to further economic growth and spurred a new wave of land reclamation. This stemmed from proposals made in 1982, arguing that expansion might reduce traffic congestion and improve the heavily silted waterfront. Macau's land area in 1984 was about . A 1984 proposal led to a rectangle reclaimed in the former port. Reclaimed land was used to relocate the Outer Harbour Ferry Terminal. More reclamations around the peninsula were used to create residential and commercial space.
1986 saw reclamation take place on the northern shores of both islands to the south. Coloane expanded during this time from to . This came alongside a second bridge from the Macau Peninsula to Taipa, more closely integrating the territory. By 1987, 54% of the peninsula was reclaimed land, and 33% of all land was reclaimed. While reclamation in the early 20th century did come with planning, development could be slow and some plans were altered or not adopted. Contrasting with this, the land reclamation projects of the 1980s had legally enforceable land use plans that determined how the new land would be used, down to the architectural styles of new buildings. By 1992, Macau had expanded to .
A competition to design a reclamation plan for Praia Grande in the southwest of the Macau Peninsula resulted in a proposal that in addition to slightly expanding Praia Grande itself used causeways to create two artificial fresh water lakes. A triangular artificial island separating the two was connected by road to the rest of the peninsula. The creation of these lakes in part aims to preserve the original view of the Praia Grande bay as it would historically have been seen from the sea. This project created of land.
A large project saw of land created on either side of the Estrada do Istmo between Taipa and Coloane. The two islands were completely connected by this reclaimed land, with the new area referred to as Cotai. Land was separately reclaimed to build the Macau International Airport to the east of the islands, with both the terminal and runway fully situated on reclaimed land. The airport was initially reclaimed as a separate island, connected to Taipa by bridges. It opened in November 1995. Reclamation of west Cotai and the airport took place from 1989 to 1995, while east Cotai was reclaimed from 1995 to 2005. Following this, Macau covered : in the Macau Peninsula, each in Taipa and Coloane, and in Cotai.
Post-handover
Following the handover of Macau from Portugal to China in 1999, Chinese government funding was available for new land reclamation projects. However, new proposals required approval by the State Council of China, as well as the Macau government, and went through a more rigorous assessment process. Legal changes meant newly reclaimed land no longer became private property, but state property. Projects shifted mostly to infilling or small extensions from the existing coastline.