Sculpture in Japan began with the clay figure. Towards the end of the long Neolithic Jōmon period, "flame-rimmed" pottery vessels had sculptural extensions to the rim, and very stylized pottery dogū figures were produced, many with the characteristic "snow-goggle" eyes. During the Kofun period of the 3rd to 6th century CE, haniwa terracotta figures of humans and animals in a simplistic style were erected outside important tombs. The arrival of Buddhism in the 6th century brought with it sophisticated traditions in sculpture, Chinese styles mediated via Korea. The 7th-century Hōryū-ji and its contents have survived more intact than any East Asian Buddhist temple of its date, with works including a Shaka Trinity of 623 in bronze, showing the historical Buddha flanked by two bodhisattvas and also the Guardian Kings of the Four Directions.Paine & Soper, 30–31.
Jōchō is said not only to be one of the greatest Buddhist sculptors in the Heian period but also in the history of Buddhist statues in Japan. Jōchō redefined the body shape of Buddha statues by perfecting the technique of () which is a combination of several woods. The peaceful expression and graceful figure of the Buddha statue that he made completed a Japanese style of sculpture of Buddha statues called ('Jōchō style', ) and determined the style of Japanese Buddhist statues of the later period. His achievement dramatically raised the social status of busshi (Buddhist sculptor) in Japan.
In the Kamakura period, the Minamoto clan established the Kamakura shogunate and the Samurai class ruled virtually all of Japan for the first time. Jocho's successors, sculptors of the Kei school of Buddhist statues, created realistic and dynamic statues to suit the tastes of samurai, and Japanese Buddhist sculpture reached its peak. Sculptors Unkei, Kaikei, and Tankei gained renown by replacing temples' Buddha statues that had been lost in wars or fires, such as those at Kofuku-ji.
Almost all subsequent significant large sculpture in Japan was Buddhist, with some Shinto equivalents, and after Buddhism declined in Japan in the 15th century, monumental sculpture became largely architectural decoration.Paine & Soper, 121. However sculptural work in the decorative arts was developed to a remarkable level of technical achievement and refinement in small objects such as inro and netsuke in many materials, and metal or Japanese sword mountings. In the 19th century there were export industries of small bronze sculptures, ivory and porcelain figurines, and other types of small sculpture, increasingly emphasizing technical accomplishment.
History Ancient art
Ancient Japanese clay figures are known as dogū () and haniwa ().
Early inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago evolved the first Japanese native art in rough earthenware and in strange clay figures called , which are probably fetishes of some religious nature. may have been used in fertility rites, exorcism or other forms of ritual. The figures feature elaborate symbolism of strongly engraved lines and swirls.
The Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan) which is an ancient history of Japan compiled in 720, states that was ordered at the time of an empress's death by the emperor who regretted the custom of servants and maids of the deceased following their master in death, and ordered that clay figures be molded and placed around the kofun burial mound instead of the sacrifice of living beings. Scholars doubt the authenticity of this story and contend that plain cylindrical clay pipes were the first forms, and that they were used in the manner of stakes to hold the earth of the burial mound in place. Later these plain cylindrical came to be decorated and to take various forms, including the shapes of houses and domestic animals as well as human beings. They have been found arranged in a circle around the mound, lending credence to the scholars' theory. However, the figures likely gained religious symbolism later, aside from their original practical purpose as stakes.
Asuka and Hakuhō periods
Japanese emergence from the period of native primitive arts was instigated mainly by the introduction of Buddhism from the mainland Asian continent in the middle of the sixth century. Together with the new religion, skilled artists and craftsmen from China came to Japan to build its temples and sculpted idols, and to pass on artistic techniques to native craftsmen.
Earliest examples of Buddhist art may be seen at the seventh-century Horyū-ji temple in Nara, whose buildings themselves, set in a prescribed pattern with main hall, belfry, pagodas, and other buildings enclosed within an encircling roofed corridor, retain an aura of the ancient era, together with the countless art treasures preserved within their halls.
Nara and its vicinity contain the vast majority of the nation's treasures of the early period of Buddhist art, known in art history as the Asuka period. The sculpture of this period shows, as does most all subsequent sculpture, the influence of continental art. Noted Asuka sculptor Tori Busshi followed the style of North Wei sculpture and established what has come to be known as the Tori school of sculpture. Notable examples of Tori works are the Sakyamuni Triad which are the main icons of the Golden Hall of Horyū-ji temple and the Kannon Boddhisatva of Yumedono Hall of the same temple, also known as Guze Kannon.
Some of the most important Buddhist sculptures belong to the ensuing Hakuho art period when sculpture came to show predominantly Tang influence. The mystic unrealistic air of the earlier Tori style came to be replaced by a soft supple pose and a near-sensuous beauty more in the manner of the Maitreya, with long narrow slit eyes and gentle effeminate features, which in spite of their air of reverie have about them an intimate approachability. The aloofness of the earlier Asuka sculpture is softened into a more native form; and there is to be seen in them a compromise between the divine and the human ideal.
Representative sculptures of this period are the Sho Kannon of Yakushiji temple, and the Yumatagae Kannon of Horyū-ji, both showing the fullness of rounded flesh within the conventionalized folds of the garments, reflecting in their artistry features of the Gupta art are transmitted to Japanese through Tang.
Nara period
In 710–793, Japanese sculptors learned high Tang style and produced a style called Tenpyō sculpture, which shows realistic face, massive solid volume, natural drapery, and representation of sentiment. Emperor Shōmu ordered the colossal gilt bronze Vairocana Buddha in Tōdai-ji temple, which was completed in 752.
Although the statue has been destroyed twice and repaired, a minor original part has survived. Among many original works, the Asura in Kōfukuji temple is a dry lacquer statue showing delicate representation of sentiment. The four guardians in Kaidanin, a division of Tōdai-ji temple, are clay statues. A national official factory, Zō Tōdai-ji shi ("Tōdai-ji Temple construction office"), produced many Buddhist sculptures by division of the work for Tōdai-ji and other official temples and temples for novelties. Gilt bronze, dry lacquer, clay, terracotta, repousee, stone, and silver sculptures were made in the factory. Generally the sculptors were secular and received official status and salary. Some private studios offered Buddhist icons to people, and some monks made them themselves.
Heian period
With the moving of the imperial capital from Nara to Kyoto in 794, big temples did not move to Kyoto. The government fed new esoteric Buddhism imported from the Tang dynasty in China. The official factory Zo Tōdai-ji shi was closed in 789. The fired sculptors worked under the patronage of large temples in Nara, new temples of the esoteric sect, the court, and the novelties. Sculptors received temple clergy status whether or not they were members of the order. Wood became the primary medium.
Regarding the style, the Heian period was divided in two: the early Heian period and the later. In the early Heian period (794 to about the mid-10th century), esoteric Buddhist statues flourished. Kūkai, Saichō and other members of Imperial Japanese embassies to China imported the high to later Tang style. The statue bodies were carved from single blocks of wood and appear imposing, massive, and heavy when compared to Nara-period works. Their thick limbs and severe, almost brooding facial features imbue them with a sense of dark mystery and inspire awe in the beholder, in keeping with the secrecy of esoteric Buddhist rites. Heavily carved draperies, in which rounded folds alternate with sharply cut folds, are typical of the period. Among esoteric Buddhist deities, enormous images of Acala have been produced by the Japanese.
In the later Heian period (the mid-10th century to the 12th century), the sophistication of court culture and popularity of Amida Worship gave rise to a new style: gentle, calm, and refined features with more attenuated proportion. Sculptors Japanized faces of images. Pure Land sect (Amida Worship) leader Genshin and his work Ōjōyōshū influenced many sculptors. The masterpiece is the Amida Buddha in Byōdō-in in Uji by the master Jōchō. He established a canon of Buddhist sculpture. He was called the expert of technique: sculptors began working with multiple blocks of wood, too. This technique allowed masters atelier production with apprentices. In school, a grandson of Jōchō established an atelier which worked with the Imperial Court in Kyoto. a discipline of Jōchō, also established Sanjyō-Atlier in Kyoto.
Kamakura period
Kei school established a new style of Buddhist sculpture based on realism, incorporating elements of the style of the Nara period as well as the technique established by Jōchō in the Heian period. Their sculptures are characterized by sharp and stern expressions, muscular and three-dimensional bodies, and postures and clothing that express movement. The Kei school succeeded in expressing complex emotions and movements. This realism reflected the tastes of samurai, who had effectively governed Japan since the Kamakura period and had become new patrons of Buddhist sculptures. On the other side, clay, dry-lacquer, embossing, and terracotta sculptures did not revive. They used mainly wood and sometimes bronze.Yoshio Kawahara (2002) How to see and distinguish Buddhist sculptures. p.185. Shufunotomo Co., Ltd.
The Kei school took root in Nara city, which was the former capital (710–793), and worked in large temples in Nara. In the Kamakura period, the Kyoto court and Kamakura shogunate military government reconstructed large temples burned in late-12th-century wars. Many sculptures were repaired and many buildings were rebuilt or repaired.
Among the sculptors of the Kei school, Unkei is renowned. His works include a pair of colossal Kongō-rikishi in Tōdai-ji and the portrait-like statues of Indian priests in Kōfuku-ji. Unkei had six sculptor sons and their work was also imbued with the new realism. Tankei, the eldest son and a brilliant sculptor, became the head of the studio. Kōshō, the fourth son, produced a remarkable sculpture of the 10th-century Japanese Buddhist teacher Kuya (903–972).
Kaikei was a collaborator of Unkei. He was a devout adherent of the Pure Land sect. He worked with the priest Chōgen (1121–1206), the director of the Tōdai-ji reconstruction project. Many of his figures are more idealized than those of Unkei and his sons, and are characterized by a beautifully finished surface, richly decorated with pigments and gold. More than 40 of his works have survived, many of which are signed by him. His most important work is the Amitabha Triad of Ono Jōdo-ji (1195).