Purushartha (; ) literally means "object(ive) of mankind". Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany It is a key concept in Hinduism, and refers to the four dimensions of a human life. The four puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kama (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Moksha (liberation, spiritual values, self-realization)., ; Cf. also ; M Hiriyanna (2000), Philosophy of Values, in Indian Philosophy: Theory of value (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , pages 1–10
All four Purusharthas are important, but in cases of conflict, Dharma is considered more important than Artha or Kama in Hindu philosophy. Moksha is considered the ultimate goal of human life.Alban Widgery (1930), The Principles of Hindu Ethics , International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 239–240 At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.
Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called Nishkama Karma as a possible solution to the tension.
Etymology
Puruṣārtha () is a composite Sanskrit word from Purusha () and Artha (). Purusha means "man", "immaterial essence", or "primaeval human being as the soul and original source of the universe"purusha Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany, depending on the darsana, the school of thought. Artha in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning".artha Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany Together, Purushartha literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit".R Prasad (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, , page 125
Alf Hiltebeitel translates Purushartha as "Goals of Man". Prasad clarifies that "Man" includes both man and woman in ancient and medieval Indian texts. Olivelle translates it as the "aims of human life". In his book Bhagavad-Gita As It Is, Prabhupada describes Purusartha as "material religiosity, economic development, sense gratification and, at the end, the attempt to become one with the Supreme."
Purushartha is also referred to as Chaturvarga.Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby (2004), The Hindu World, Routledge, , page 4, Quote: "There are four categories or life-ideals (caturvarga or purusartha) that usually are said to provide the framework for classical Hindu society".
Discussion
Purushartha is a key concept in Hinduism, which holds that every human has four proper goals that are necessary and sufficient for a fulfilling and happy life,See: A. Sharma (1982), The Puruṣārthas: a study in Hindu axiology, Michigan State University, , pp 9–12; See review by Frank Whaling in Numen, Vol. 31, 1 (Jul., 1984), pp. 140–142; A. Sharma (1999), The Puruṣārthas: An Axiological Exploration of Hinduism , The Journal of Religious Ethics, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 223–256; Chris Bartley (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Editor: Oliver Learman, , Routledge, Article on Purushartha, pp 443 Dharma – signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with rta, the order that makes life and universe possible,The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Dharma , The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions: "In Hinduism, dharma is a fundamental concept, referring to the order and custom which make life and a universe possible, and thus to the behaviours appropriate to the maintenance of that order." and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and right way of living.Dharma, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to van Buitenen,J. A. B. van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp 33–40 is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert. Artha – signifies the "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in.John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315–319 Artha incorporates wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56Bruce Sullivan (1997), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, , pp 29–30 Kama – signifies desire, wish, passion, emotions, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without lustful connotations. Gavin Flood explainsGavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, , pp 11–13 kāma as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation). Moksha – signifies emancipation, liberation or release.John Bowker, The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, , pp. 650 In some schools of Hinduism, moksha connotes freedom from saṃsāra, the cycle of death and rebirth, in other schools moksha connotes freedom, self-knowledge, self-realization and liberation in this life.See: E. Deutsch, The self in Advaita Vedanta, in Roy Perrett (Editor), Indian philosophy: metaphysics, Volume 3, , Taylor and Francis, pp 343–360; T. Chatterjee (2003), Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy, , pp 89–102; Quote - "Moksa means freedom"; "Moksa is founded on atmajnana, which is the knowledge of the self."See: Jorge Ferrer, Transpersonal knowledge, in Transpersonal Knowing: Exploring the Horizon of Consciousness (editors: Hart et al.), , State University of New York Press, Chapter 10 Andrew Fort and Patricia Mumme (1996), Living Liberation in Hindu Thought, ;
Relative importance between four goals of life Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma is foremost. If dharma is ignored, artha and kama - profit and pleasure respectively - lead to social chaos.Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, , pp 16–21 The Gautama Dharmashastra, Apastamba Dharmasutra and Yājñavalkya Smṛti, as examples, all suggest that dharma comes first and is more important than artha and kama.See: Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, , Note 24.23 at pp 364; Gautama Dharmashastra at 1.9.46–47, Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, , paragraph overlapping pp 92–93; Yajnavalkya Smrti at 1.115, Translation by Rai Vidyarnava (1918), The Sacred Books of Hindus Volume XXI, Verse CXV and commentary at pp 232; Apastamba Dharmasutra 2.20.18–23; Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, , Miscellaneous Rules 18–23 at pp 64
Kama states the relative value of three goals as follows: artha is more important and should precede kama, while dharma is more important and should precede both kama and artha.The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925), The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8 Kautiliya's Arthashastra, however, argues that artha is the foundation for the other two. Without prosperity and security in society or at individual level, both moral life and sensuality become difficult. Poverty breeds vice and hate, while prosperity breeds virtues and love, suggested Kautiliya. Kautilya adds that all three are mutually connected, and one should not cease enjoying life, nor virtuous behavior, nor pursuit of wealth creation. Excessive pursuit of any one aspect of life with complete rejection of other two, harms all three including the one excessively pursued.See: Kautilya Arthashastra at 1.7.3–7; For English translation - Rangarajan (1987), Penguin Classics, ; Ashok S. Chousalkar (2004), Methodology of Kautilya's Arthashastra, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 55–76 The sastras, states Kane,P.V. Kane (1941), History of Dharmasastra, Volume 2, Part 1, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pp. 8–9 observe that the relative precedence of artha, kama and dharma are naturally different with age.
Moksha is considered in Hinduism as the parama-puruṣārtha or ultimate goal of human life.
Resolution between four goals of life Indian scholars recognized and have debated the inherent tension between renunciation and Moksha on one hand, and the active pursuit of Kama and Artha on the other.R. V. De Smet (1972), Early Trends in the Indian Understanding of Man, Philosophy East and West, 22(3): 259–268 This has led to the concepts of Pravrtti (प्रवृत्ति, Pravritti) and Nivrtti (निवृत्ति, Nivritti), with the former meaning "giving or devoting one's self to" external action (with oneself's Dharma or essence at that stage towards Artha and Kama), while the latter means "withdrawing and restraining one's self from" external action in order to focus on one's own liberation (with oneself's Dharma or essence at that stage towards Moksha). Artha and Kama are Pravrtti, while Moksha is Nivrtti.Stephen N Hay and William Theodore De Bary (1988), Sources of Indian Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 211 Both are considered important in Hinduism. Manusmriti, for example, describes it as,
Indian scholars offered a creative "resolution" to the tension between "action"-filled life and "renunciation"-driven life, by suggesting the best of both worlds can be achieved by dedicating oneself to "action with renunciation", that is when "action is without attachment or craving for results". Action must be engaged in because it is Dharma, that is, it is good, virtuous, right, a duty and a moral activity, and not because of one's craving for the results or material rewards without any consideration for Dharma. This idea of "craving-free, dharma-driven action" has been called Nishkama Karma in Bhagavad Gita.Gerard Delanty (2012), Routledge Handbook of Cosmopolitanism Studies, Routledge, , page 465P Bilimoria (1993), Indian Ethics, in A Companion to Ethics (Editor: Peter Singer), Wiley, , page 73 Other Indian texts state the same answer to tension between "pursue wealth and love" versus "renounce everything" Purusharthas, but using different words. Isa Upanishad, for example, states "act and enjoy with renunciation, do not covet".
Origins of puruṣārtha theory The concept of mokṣa appears in the Upanishads, while the preceding Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas commonly refer to kāma, artha and dharma as the "trivarga" or "three categories" of possible human pursuits. The Dharmaśāstras and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata are the first known sources that comprehensively present the notion that integrated living entails the pursuit of four goals or ends. Prasad (2008) states that the division between the trivarga and mokṣa is intended to highlight the context between the social (trivarga) and personal (mokṣa) spheres.
The Sannyasa is entirely focussed on the pursuit of Moksha without violating Dharma. Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, completed by about 7th century BC, states the following behavioral vows for a person in Sannyasa,Max Muller (Translator), Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 18, The Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press, pages 279–281