From the Norman Conquest of 1066 to the death of King John in 1216, England was governed by the Norman and Plantagenet dynasties. The Norman kings preserved and built upon the institutions of Anglo-Saxon government. They also introduced new institutions, in particular, formalized feudalism. Government in late medieval England continued to develop from these trends after 1215.

Historical context

William the Conqueror () inherited a sophisticated Anglo-Saxon government. He gradually replaced the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy with Anglo-Normans and introduced feudalism to England. Nevertheless, government institutions remained essentially unchanged. The Conqueror's sons, William II () and Henry I (), succeeded him. Henry died without a legitimate male heir.

Henry designated his daughter, Empress Matilda, as his successor, but his nephew Stephen () claimed the throne. The resulting civil war, known as the Anarchy, weakened royal authority and ended in a negotiated settlement whereby Matilda's son succeeded Stephen as Henry II. Henry was the first Angevin king of England, followed by his sons Richard I and John. The Angevin kings ruled over extensive possessions in the British Isles and France, known as the Angevin Empire.

As a result of their cross-Channel empires, the Norman and Angevin kings spent little time in England. This situation did not change until the reign of King John, who lost most of his French lands. John was the first English king since the Conquest to spend large amounts of time in England; however, his tyrannical behavior turned the barons against him. They forced John to agree to Magna Carta, which would have critical constitutional implications for England's late medieval government.

Feudalism

Anglo-Saxon land law recognised several types of land tenure. Bookland was property granted by charter to a person with outright ownership, while loanland was leased temporarily. For a benefice, the recipient (such as a parish priest) was granted the income from the property without having ownership. These forms of land tenure created weak bonds between lords and vassals that were constantly being dissolved and reformed.

The Normans introduced feudalism, which created stronger and multi-generational ties between lords and vassals and became the basis of English land law. William the Conqueror claimed ownership of all land in England, making all Englishmen directly or indirectly tenants of the Crown. He confiscated estates wholly owned by Anglo-Saxon lords and granted them to his Norman followers as fiefs. The king granted the use of a fief to his vassal and the vassal's heirs in return for homage, fealty, and specified service (such as knight-service). The fief-holder was a tenant, not the owner of the fief. He could not sell the land or give it away; however, he could sub-let land to his tenants in return for their service in a process called subinfeudation.

Vassals who held land directly from the Crown were called tenants-in-chief. According to Domesday Book, the king had around 500 tenants-in-chief. Of these, 170 were wealthy enough to be considered feudal barons. Tenants-in-chief were obligated to fight personally for the king, but they also had to contribute knights to the king's service. A knight's estate was called a knight's fee, and It was large enough to support one knight in return for 40 days of military service a year. Besides knight-service, land could also be held in return for non-military service (called serjeanty). Some church land was held by knight-service, while other property was held by frankalmoign (the obligation to pray and say masses for the lord's soul).

If a lord failed to uphold his responsibilities to his vassals (to protect his vassals and fairly exercise his feudal rights), a vassal could renounce his fealty through the ritual act of defiance known as diffidation (Latin: ). Armed rebellion against the king, therefore, was not treason as long as the baron had made diffidation. Loss of land held from the king was the only consequence, but most rebellious barons were restored to royal favour.

Crown

Becoming king In this period, a king had greater latitude to determine his own successor. Primogeniture (the rule that the eldest son inherits) was not yet definitive. William the Conqueror became king by right of conquest, and he could dispose of England as he saw fit. For this reason, his eldest son, Robert Curthose, inherited the Duchy of Normandy as was customary, while his second oldest son, William Rufus, was given England.

A king's nominated heir was not always accepted, especially when the heir was female. In 1116, Henry I required the barons to swear fealty to his son, William Adelin. After William's death on the White Ship, Henry designated his daughter, Empress Matilda, as his heir and made the barons swear fealty to her on three occasions. In 1133, Henry designated Matilda's infant son, Henry FitzEmpress, as his heir and required the barons to swear fealty. Matilda was unpopular both for being a woman and because she was married to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou—Normandy's enemy. After Henry I died, Matilda's cousin, Stephen of Blois, won support for his accession by making concessions to various barons. The civil war between Stephen and Matilda ended after Stephen adopted Henry FitzEmpress, later Henry II, as his son and heir. In the process, Stephen's own sons were disinherited.

Richard I initially nominated as heir Arthur of Brittany, his nephew. After Arthur fell into the French king's custody, Richard decided that his brother John would inherit the throne.

At times, Norman kings claimed election as a "useful fiction" to bolster their legitimacy. Henry I had himself elected by a small group of barons at Winchester after his older brother, William Rufus, died in a hunting accident. This hurried election was part of Henry's attempt to bypass his elder brother Robert's claims to the throne.

Interregnum and coronation

Henry II added "" (Latin for "by the grace of God") to the royal style, but the idea that kings rule by divine sanction was much older. For this reason, no one could be called a king until he received coronation. Before coronation, he was a feudal prince styled "Lord of the English". King John illustrated this practice by using the title "Lord of Ireland" rather than "King of Ireland", as he was never crowned in Ireland.

The time between the death of the previous monarch and a coronation was called an interregnum. These lasted a month on average but could be shorter or longer based on political circumstances. It lasted only three days between the death of William Rufus and the crowning of Henry I, who wanted to secure the throne for himself while his elder brother Robert Curthose was in Normandy. The political uncertainty during an interregnum meant it could be dangerous for the country. The kings of medieval France avoided interregnums by practicing coregency, where kings had their heirs crowned as co-kings. Coregency occurred in medieval England only once when Henry II had his eldest son, Henry the Young King, crowned co-king.

Traditionally, the Archbishop of Canterbury crowned English kings at Westminster Abbey. As part of the ceremony, the king swore a three-fold oath to protect the church and Christian people, to prohibit crime, and to rule with justice and mercy. The clergy and people present were then asked by a bishop if they wanted him as king, to which they replied, "we wish it and grant it". The king was then anointed with chrism, symbolizing the sacramental character of kingship. After the anointing, he was crowned. The physical crown worn by kings symbolized all of the king's rights.

The tradition of the coronation oath acknowledged that monarchs owed certain obligations to their subjects in return for obedience. Henry I further developed this concept, promising to reform William Rufus's abuses and restore the good laws of Edward the Confessor and William the Conqueror. He also promised to demand only those feudal duties established by custom. These promises were confirmed in the Coronation Charter (also known as the Charter of Liberties). Stephen issued similar charters, and Henry II reconfirmed his grandfather's charter. While Norman and Angevin kings tended to break the promises in the charters, they provided the barons with political precedents in their struggle with King John, ultimately producing Magna Carta.

Rights and authority Historian Bryce Lyon described the Norman kings as autocrats and "masters almost without limitation". The Glanvill legal treatise, written during the reign of Henry II, states "" (in English "what pleases the prince has the force of law"). quoted in . While the coronation oath and charters provided theoretical limits to the king's powers, these promises were often broken.

The king enjoyed an extensive royal prerogative. He could arbitrarily levy taxes and enact new legislation with or without the advice and approval of the . The Anglo-Saxon kings had issued formal law codes, but Anglo-Norman legislation took the form of royal edicts. The king had authority over the coinage and the "king's highway" (major roads). He could not be sued and had exclusive jurisdiction over certain crimes.

As a feudal lord, the king had certain rights and powers over his vassals. His tenants-in-chief owed him military service or scutage payments. In addition to non-feudal taxation, the barons paid the king customary feudal payments called reliefs and aids. Preventing the king from abusing these feudal rights was one of the goals of Magna Carta.

Central administration Chief Justiciar

Since Norman kings spent most of their time in Normandy, appointing agents to govern England in their absence became necessary. In 1109, Henry I appointed Roger of Salisbury the first chief justiciar. It remained the most powerful office under the king throughout the Norman and Angevin periods until it was abolished in 1234.

The chief justiciar functioned as the king's chief minister and viceroy with particular responsibility over financial and legal matters. He supervised the royal household and the exchequer. As chief royal justice, he directed the procedures of the and the itinerant justices. The justiciar's authority continued even during an interregnum. Historians H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles theorise "that in some way royal authority resided in the justiciar" during an interregnum. Royal household

The king and his court were itinerant during this period. Not only did kings divide their time between England and Normandy, but within England, kings constantly traveled throughout the kingdom with the small council and the royal household staff. King John's household, for example, moved an average of 13 times a month.

The most important household department was the chancery (writing office). The chancellor led the chancery and had custody of the great seal. The master of the writing office assisted him. Once the chancery produced a royal document, the chancellor affixed the great seal to it in the presence of royal witnesses. The Normans continued to issue charters and writs like the Anglo-Saxons, but they also combined elements of both into the writ-charter. Under the Angevins, the writ-charter developed into letters close and letters patent.

Under the Anglo-Saxon kings, all revenue was received and disbursed by the king's chamber and wardrobe. The chamber, like the rest of the household, was itinerant. Under the Normans, the chamber continued to serve as the household's financial department, but a master chamberlain now led it.

Exchequer