The kings of Elam were the rulers of Elam, an ancient civilization and kingdom in south-western Iran. The earliest known Elamite dynasty was the Awan dynasty, which came to power in the Early Dynastic period. Elam was conquered by the Akkadian Empire around 2325 BC and was then ruled by a sequence of Akkadian-appointed governors before independence was restored a little over a century later. After the reign of the powerful Elamite king Puzur-Inshushinak, Elam was conquered again by the Sumerian Third Dynasty of Ur. Native Elamite rule was after a few decades restored under the Shimashki dynasty during the reign of Ur III king Ibbi-Sin. In 2004 BC the Shimashki king Kindattu sacked Ur, whereafter Elam became fully independent. The Sukkulmah dynasty, perhaps a related lineage, was established in another part of Elam shortly thereafter, and after a period of overlap gradually overtook the Shimashki dynasty.
The Sukkalmah dynasty was followed by the Kidinuid and Igihalkid dynasties, whereafter the Elamite kingdom reached the height of its power under the Shutrukid dynasty. Powerful Shutrukid kings, such as Shutruk-Nahhunte I and Shilhak-Inshushinak, exerted dominion over not only Elam itself but also over Babylonia. The kingdom may have disintegrated following the defeat of Hutelutush-Inshushinak by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I in the late 12th century BC, but a new line of rulers are attested in Elam from the early 8th century BC onwards. The so-called Neo-Elamite kingdom came under the rule of the Hubanid dynasty in the early 7th century BC, which initiated a short period of intense internal conflict and meddling in Assyrian and Babylonian affairs. The Neo-Elamite kingdom was effectively destroyed by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in 646 BC, though Elamite rulers continued to govern the Elamite heartland until the rise and early years of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 6th century BC.
The Elamites created a new kingdom, Elymais, around 147 BC. Initially ruled by the Kamnaskirid dynasty, Elymais often fell under the control of the Parthian Empire as a vassal state, and eventually came under the rule of a cadet branch of the Parthian Arsacid dynasty. Following the fall of the Parthian Empire and the rise of the succeeding Sasanian Empire in the early 3rd century AD, Elymais was conquered and abolished as a distinct kingdom, marking the final end of Elamite political history.
Early Elam (c. 2500–2100 BC)
Awan dynasty (c. 2500 – c. 2100 BC)
The Awan dynasty is the earliest known royal dynasty of Elam. "Awan" was a native Elamite term, referring mainly to modern Khuzestan but also perhaps to the entire Elamite kingdom. Its use as a dynastic name comes from both Old Babylonian sources, which designated the kings of the earliest Elamite dynasty as belonging to the "Awan dynasty", and a native Elamite king list of the Awan and succeeding Shimashki dynasties. The rulers preceding Hishep-ratep and Luh-ishan fall into the Early Dynastic period, though their historicity beyond appearing in the king list cannot be verified. If real, the first king mentioned in the king list (Peyli) could speculatively be placed sometime in between . The Awan dynasty was not an entirely contiguous family line and was for a little over a century interrupted by governors appointed by the Akkadian Empire. (Portrait)NameReignSuccession and notesRefPeyliUncertain, 2500 BC (?)Historicity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King ListTataUncertainHistoricity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King ListUkkutaheshUncertainHistoricity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King ListHishurUncertainHistoricity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King ListShushuntaranaUncertainHistoricity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King ListNapilhushUncertainHistoricity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King ListKikku-siwe-temptUncertainHistoricity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King ListHishep-ratepEarliest historically verified Elamite king. Elam was in his reign invaded by Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC), who defeated Hishep-ratep and his son Luh-ishan in battle and occupied most of Khuzestan.Luh-ishanc. 2350 – c. 2325 BCSon of Ḫišibrasini (may have been the same person as Hishep-ratep)EmahshiniUncertain, (?)Does not appear in the Awan King List. On the news of Sargon of Akkad's death, Emahshini and his ally Abalgamash of Marhasi invaded and retook Khuzestan. Shortly thereafter, Sargon's son Rimush (2279–2270 BC) retaliated and retook Khuzestan.AutalummashUncertain, before 2270 BC (?)Does not appear in the Awan King List. Attested as an Elamite king from a Hurrian-language text found at Boghazkoy (Hattusa), dated to before the reign of Manishtushu, king of Akkad.After conquests by Rimush and Manishtushu (2270–2255 BC), Elam was incorporated into the Akkadian Empire and placed under a series of royally appointed governors.Eshpumc. 2269 – c. 2255 BCGovernor of Elam, appointed by ManishtushuIlshu-rabic. 2269 – c. 2255 BCGovernor of Pashime (along the coastal territories of Elam), appointed by ManishtushuKhitac. 2250 BCGovernor of Elam (Susa) appointed by Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), known from a treaty concluded with Naram-SinEpirmupic. 2175 – c. 2154 BCAkkadian. Originally a governor of Elam (Susa) appointed by Naram-Sin or Shar-Kali-Sharri (2217–2193 BC) but achieved independence during the collapse of the Akkadian Empire.Ili-ishmanic. 2150 BCAkkadian. Presumably Epirmupi's successor, continued to use the title of governor.Hi'eluc. 2125 BCResumed native Elamite rule. Historicity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King List.Hita'ac. 2125 BCHistoricity uncertain, attested only in the Awan King List. He may have been the same person as Khita.Puzur-Inshushinakc. 2125 – c. 2110 BCContemporary of Ur-Nammu of Ur (2112–2094 BC) and Gudea of Lagash. Described as the "creator of the first Iranian empire", Puzur-Inshushinak reunified Khuzestan and Elam and conquered large parts of southern Mesopotamia before being defeated by Ur-Nammu and Gudea.
Old Elamite period (c. 2050–1500 BC)
Shimashki dynasty (c. 2050 – c. 1850 BC)
After the reign of Puzur-Inshushinak there was renewed Mesopotamian control of Elam under Third Dynasty of Ur, an empire established by the Sumerian king Ur-Nammu in 2112 BC. Though somewhat tenuous, Sumerian rule in Elam was strong enough for the kings of Ur to engage in diplomacy with other Iranian regions. Sumerian imperialism was eventually met with Elamite resistance, most notably in the region of Shimashki, from which a new dynasty (though its precise boundaries are not clear) extended its rule into the lands surrounding Susa. Twelve kings of the Shimashki dynasty are known by name from the same ancient king list also listing the kings of the Awan dynasty. The king Ebarti II, attached to the Shimashki dynasty in the king list tablet between Tan-Ruhuratir I and Idattu II, has in this list been placed in the succeeding Sukkalmah dynasty, which traced its descent from him.
The rulers of the Shimashki dynasty are beyond the king list confirmed by their own inscriptions and by surviving sources from Mesopotamia. Though later portions of the list might record sequential rule, it is likely that the rulers recorded before Kindattu were contemporary rivals or co-rulers, rather than rulers in sequence, since Girnamme, Tazitta I and Ebarti I all appear in the inscriptions of Shu-Sin of Ur (2037–2028 BC). Ebarti I appears to have been the most prominent of the three, though they all belonged to the same family lineage. Ebarti I initiated an age of expansion of the Shimashki realm, which was continued under Kindattu, who sacked Ur and ended the Third Dynasty of Ur. After Kindattu's sack of Ur, Elam became fully independent under the Shimashki rulers. (Portrait)NameReignSuccession and notesRefGirnammeUncertain, 2044 BC (?)Contemporary and relative of Tazitta I and Ebarti ITazitta IUncertain, 2040 BC (?)Contemporary and relative of Girnamme and Ebarti IEbarti IUncertain, 2037 BC (?)Attested from the late reign of the Ur III king Shulgi (2094–2046 BC) to the reign of Shu-Sin (2037–2028 BC). Contemporary and relative of Girnamme and Tazitta I.Tazitta IIUncertain, 2033 BC (?)Uncertain connectionLurak-luhhanUncertain, 2028 BC (?)Uncertain connectionKindattuUncertain, 2016 BC (?)Son of Ebarti I, sacked Ur and destroyed the Third Dynasty of UrImazuUncertain, 2015 BC (?)Son of Kindattu, attested as king of Anshan by contemporary seal but omitted from the Shimashki king list, perhaps a junior ruler. Married a daughter of Iddin-Dagan of Isin (1974–1954 BC).Idattu IUncertain, 1995 BC (?)Son of KindattuTan-Ruhuratir IUncertain, 1990 BC (?)Son of Idattu I, married a daughter of Bilalama of EshnunnaIdattu IIUncertain, 1965 BC (?)Son of Tan-Ruhuratir IIdattunapirUncertain, 1890 BC (?)Uncertain connection, contemporary of Sumu-abum of Babylon (1894–1881 BC)IdattutemtiUncertain, 1880 BC (?)Uncertain connection
Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1980 – c. 1500 BC)
The Sukkalmah dynasty came to power shortly after the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, though it overlapped with the Shimashki dynasty for well over a century. The dynastic shift probably reflects a gradual change in power, perhaps the two dynasties began as a single royal family of co-rulers in different geographical regions. The Sukkalmah period was one of the most prosperous in Elamite history, marked by unprecedented prestige and influence. Elam was frequently a powerbroker in Mesopotamian politics, entering into uneasy alliances with various states and rulers. Several new developments also took place within Elam during this time. Notably, rulers did not use the title of king, but rather sukkalmah ("grand regent") and sukkal ("regent") of Elam, Shimashki or Susa. The use of sukkalmah, from which the dynasty received its name, originates from Mesopotamia, where it was used as a title ranking below king. In Elam, its usage as the term for the region's paramount ruler might derive from the title possibly being used by the vassals or governors in Susa during the rule of the Third Dynasty of Ur.
The transition from the Shimashki to the Sukkalmah age is obscure. It seems that the two sequences of rulers were connected; the first Sukkalmah ruler, Ebarti II, is in inscriptions referenced as the father of the succeeding Shilhaha but also appears in a king list recording the Shimashki kings and is identified in some later sources as "king of Anshan and Susa", not as sukkalmah. The political structure of Elam during the Sukkalmah period is not entirely clear; whereas some scholars believe there to have been a single line of rulers reigning in sequence, others believe, due to the different titles and capitals attested, that rulership was exercised as a triumvirate, with the paramount ruler (the sukkalmah at Susa) ruling together with junior rulers (sukkals) of "Elam" and "Shimashki".
The sequence of rulers below follows the most probable sequence of Sukkalmah rulers, per Peyronel (2018), with additional rulers inserted in their chronological placements per Potts (1999). It is impossible to establish the length of any of their reigns, though they can at times be chronologically pinpointed through synchronisms with Mesopotamian rulers. Some internal order can however be imposed in the later portion using cuneiform documents and sealings.Katrien De Graef. “The Seal of an Official or an Official Seal? The Use of Court Seals in Old Babylonian Susa and Haft Tepe.” Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 138, no. 1, 2018, pp. 121–42 These sources also support a proposal that Atta-hushu and Sumu-abum of Babylon were contemporaries.De Graef, Katrien. “Dual Power in Susa: Chronicle of a Transitional Period from Ur III via Šimaški to the Sukkalmaḫs.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, vol. 75, no. 3, 2012, pp. 525–46