Marine conservation, also known as ocean conservation, is the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas through planned management in order to prevent the over-exploitation of these marine resources. Marine conservation is informed by the study of marine plants and animal resources and ecosystem functions and is driven by response to the manifested negative effects seen in the environment such as species loss, habitat degradation and changes in ecosystem functions and focuses on limiting human-caused damage to marine ecosystems, restoring damaged marine ecosystems, and preserving vulnerable species and ecosystems of the marine life. Marine conservation is a relatively new discipline which has developed as a response to biological issues such as extinction and marine habitats change.
Marine conservationists rely on a combination of scientific principles derived from marine biology, Ecology, oceanography, and fisheries science, as well as on human factors, such as demand for marine resources, maritime law, economics, and policy, in order to determine how to best protect and conserve marine species and ecosystems. Marine conservation may be described as a sub-discipline of conservation biology.
History Public interest in marine biology increased in the post-war years with the publication of Rachel Carson`s sea trilogy (1941–1955); which helped inspire an era known as the "marine revolution". The United States federal legislation showed its support for marine conservation by institutionalizing protected areas and creating marine estuaries. In 1969, the Coastal Maine National Wildlife Refuge was renamed the Rachel Carson National Wildlife Refuge, highlighting Carson's contribution. The refuge protects various kinds of habitat, including barrier beach, dune, tidal estuary, salt marsh, and rocky coastline.
However, it wasn't until the 1970s that the modern science of marine conservation would become first recognised, with undersea explorations equipped with new technologies, such as computers, being undertaken at the end of the decade.Zacharias, Mark (2014). "Marine Environmental Protection Policy: International Efforts to Address Threats to Marine Biodiversity" in Marine Policy: An Introduction to Governance and International Law of the Oceans. Routledge. . During these explorations, fundamental principles of change were discovered about marine ecosystems. Through this discovery, the interdependent nature of the ocean was revealed.
This led to a change in the approach of marine conservation efforts, and a new emphasis was put on restoring systems within the environment, along with protecting biodiversity.Hinrichsen, Don (2011). The Atlas of Coasts & Oceans: Ecosystems, Threatened Resources, Marine Conservation. University of Chicago. In 1972 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) was passed, beginning the marine conservation movement. The act allowed the regulation by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) over dumping in the seas. Although the act was later amended, it was one of several key events that brought marine issues to the forefront of environmental concerns in the United States.
In 2009, Sylvia Earle received the million dollar TED prize which led to the foundation of Mission Blue (also known as the Sylvia Earle Alliance, Deep Search Foundation, and Deep Search). Mission Blue aims to establish marine protected areas (dubbed "Hope Spots") around the globe with the support of more than two hundred organisations. These supporters range from large, global companies to small, bespoke research teams.
That same year Earle also published 'The World is Blue: How Our Fate and the Ocean's Are One', widely acclaimed as being 'a Silent Spring for our era'; in which Earle reveals how just 50 years of swift and dangerous oceanic change threatens the very existence of life on Earth. Sylvia Earle life work has also been shaped directly by Rachel Carson, whose talent she rhapsodizes about in the Introduction to the 2018 edition of Carson’s 1951 best-seller, The Sea Around Us:
“Most remarkable to me is what she did imagine. Her writings are so sensitive to the feelings of fish, birds and other animals that she could put herself in their place, buoyed by the air or by water, gliding over and under the ocean’s surface. She conveyed the sense that she was the living ocean…”
In 2010, over 100 scientists, business leaders, philanthropists, and entertainment icons came together to support Dr. Sylvia Earle’s Mission Blue wish, and the following year, Gigi Brisson founded a group of Ocean Elders with the goal of unifying scientists with government and entertainment leaders.
Notable people Rachel Carson: Marine biologist, Writer, Environmental Campaigner Jacques Cousteau: Explorer, Conservationist, Researcher & Author Sylvia Earle: Marine Biologist, Explorer, & Author Steve Irwin: Naturalist, Conservationist, Zoologist, Herpetologist, & Television Personality
Human impacts on marine ecosystems
Increasing human populations have resulted in increased human impact on ecosystems. Human activities has resulted in an increased extinction rate of species which has caused a major decrease in biological diversity of plants and animals in our environment. These impacts include increased pressure from fisheries including reef degradation and overfishing as well as pressure from the tourism industry which has increased over the past few years. The deterioration of coral reefs is mainly linked to human activities – 88% of reefs are threatened through various reasons as listed above, including excessive amounts of CO2 (carbon dioxide) emissions. Oceans absorb approximately 1/3 of the CO2 produced by humans, which has detrimental effects on the marine environment. The increasing levels of CO2 in oceans change the seawater chemistry by decreasing the pH, which is known as ocean acidification.
Oil spills also impact marine environments, contributing to marine pollution as a result of human activity. The effects of oil on marine fish have been studied following major spills in the United States.
Shipping is a major vector for the introduction of exotic marine species, some of which can become overabundant and transform ecosystems. Collisions with ships can also be fatal for whales and can impact on the viability of whole populations, including the right whale population off the east coast of the United States.
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are the epicenter of immense amounts of biodiversity and are a key player in the survival of entire ecosystems. They provide various marine animals with food, protection, and shelter which keep generations of species alive. Furthermore, coral reefs are an integral part of sustaining human life through serving as a food source (i.e., fish and mollusks) as well as a marine space for ecotourism which provides economic benefits.Trist, Carolyn. "Recreating Ocean Space: Recreational Consumption and Representation of the Caribbean Marine." Professional Geographer. 51.3 (1999). Print. Also, humans are now conducting research regarding the use of corals as new potential sources for pharmaceuticals (i.e. steroids and anti-inflammatory drugs).
Because of the human impact on coral reefs, these ecosystems are becoming increasingly degraded and in need of conservation. The biggest threats include overfishing, destructive fishing practices, sedimentation, and pollution from land-based sources.Burke, Lauretta, Liz Selig, and Mark Spalding (2001). "Reefs At Risk in Southeast Asia." World Resources Institute, p. 72. This, in conjunction with increased carbon in oceans, coral bleaching, and diseases, means that there are no pristine reefs anywhere in the world. Up to 88% of coral reefs in Southeast Asia are now threatened, with 50% of those reefs at either "high" or "very high" risk of disappearing, which directly affects the biodiversity and survival of species dependent on coral.
This is especially harmful to island nations such as Samoa, Indonesia, and the Philippines, because many people there depend on the coral reef ecosystems to feed their families and to make a living. However, many fishermen are unable to catch as many fish as they used to, so they are increasingly using cyanide and dynamite in fishing, which further degrades the coral reef ecosystem."Coral reef destruction and conservation" . tamu.edu (18 May 2011). This perpetuation of bad habits simply leads to the further decline of coral reefs and therefore perpetuates the problem. One way of stopping this cycle is by educating the local community about why the conservation of marine spaces that include coral reefs is important.Rodrigo, Raul (1998). Resource at Risk: Philippine Coral Reefs.
Overfishing
Overfishing is one of main causes of the decrease in the ocean's wildlife population over the past years. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation reported that the percentage of the world's fish stocks that are at biologically sustainable levels have decreased from 90% in 1974 to 65.8% in 2017. The overfishing of these large fisheries destroys the marine environment and threatens the livelihood of billions who depend on fish as protein or as a source of income for catching and selling.
According to the World Wildlife Fund, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing is a major factor in overfishing. Illegal fishing is estimated to account for up to 30% of the catch for some high-value species, and the industry is estimated to be worth $36 billion per year.
According to The Hidden Nursery: How Baby Great White Sharks Are Revitalizing New York’s Marine Ecosystem, while the great white sharks baby population is increasing from New York City to the tip of Long Island, recent overfishing has started to cause the young vulnerable sharks to swim into dangerous waters off Martha Vineyard and Cape Cod where adult Great Whites are picking them off before they can mature. If Overfishing continues, we may see a population drop again soon.
Overabundance Overabundance can occur when the population of a certain species cannot be controlled naturally or by human intervention. The domination of one species can create an imbalance in an ecosystem, which can lead to the demise of other species and of the habitat.Ray, G. Carleton (2004) "Issues and Mechanisms", part 1 in Coastal-marine Conservation: Science and Policy. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. . Overabundance occurs predominately among invasive species."IUCN, the International Union for Conservation of Nature." IUCN. 12 February 2015.
Overfishing can contribute to overabundance due to eliminating an ecosystem's natural predator. This disrupts the natural food chain and allows species to grow without regulation. Not only does this create overpopulation with specific species, but it also makes changes within the structure of the environments ecosystem.
Introduced species The international shipping trade has led to the establishment of many marine species beyond their native ranges. Some of these can have adverse consequences, such as the North pacific seastar which was introduced to Tasmania, Australia. Vectors for the translocation of organisms include hull biofouling, the dumping of ballast water and dumping of water from marine aquaria. A tank of ballast water is estimated to contain around 3,000 non-native species.Smith, David. "Ballast Water" MITSG CCR: Marine Bioinvasions (1 January 2006). Once established, it is difficult to eradicate an exotic organism from an ecosystem.