Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 AD – March 235 AD), also known as Alexander Severus, was Roman emperor from 222 until 235 AD. He was the last emperor from the Severan dynasty and, at the age of 13, became the youngest sole emperor of the united Roman Empire.
Alexander became emperor at age 13, succeeding his slain cousin, Emperor Elagabalus as his heir. Alexander and Elagabalus were both grandsons of Julia Maesa, the sister of the empress Julia Domna, who had arranged for Elagabalus's acclamation as emperor by the Third Gallic Legion. Elagabalus had been murdered along with his mother Julia Soaemias by his own guards, who, as a mark of contempt, had the two bodies cast into the Tiber river.Dio, 60:20:2
Alexander's 13-year reign was the longest reign of a sole emperor since Antoninus PiusA handful of emperors since Antoninus Pius reigned for longer than 13 years, but for some or most of their reign they were co-emperors with others and therefore they were sole emperor for less time. and in peace proved prosperous. However, Rome faced military threats from the rising power of the Sassanid Empire, as well as growing incursions from the tribes of Germania. Alexander managed to check the threat of the Sassanids, but attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery when campaigning against Germanic tribes. This policy alienated many in the Roman army, leading to a conspiracy that resulted in the assassination of Alexander, along with his mother Julia Avita Mamaea and his advisors. Being succeeded by Maximinus Thrax, Alexander's death constituted the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century, bringing in its wake nearly fifty years of civil war, foreign invasion, and the collapse of the monetary economy.
Because of his mother, he was nicknamed Mamaeas (Μαμαίας).Suda, mu, 123 Suda, alpha, 1124 He was also referenced in Hebrew sources as Aseverus, son of Antonius.
Early life
Severus Alexander was born on 1 October 208 in Arca Caesarea, Phoenicia.Furius Dionysius Filocalus, Chronograph of 354, Part 3: "DIVI·ALEXANDRI·KAL·OCT".Herodian (Book 5, Chapter 3.3), who lived during Alexander's reign, writes that Elagabalus and Alexander were "about fourteen and ten, respectively" at the beginning of Macrinus' second year (April 218), which implies a date in 204 and 208, respectively. The Epitome de Caesaribus (23, 24), written over a century later, states that Alexander died in his "twenty-sixth year", implying 209. The Epitome is less reliable as it also claims that Elagabalus "lived sixteen years", when in fact he lived 18. Of his birth name, only two cognomina are known, from literary sources: Bassianus () according to the historian Cassius Dio, and Alexianus () according to Herodian. "Bassianus" was also borne by several family members, while "Alexianus" was probably later converted to Alexander.
The historian Cassius Dio thought Alexianus was the son of Gessius Marcianus, but Icks disputes this, saying Marcianus could not have married the emperor's mother before 212 AD and that Alexianus must have been fathered by his mother's first husband, whose name is unknown but is of certain existence. The priest Marcus Julius Gessius Bassianus may have been his younger brother.
Emperor
Early reign
Severus Alexander became emperor when he was around 13 years old, making him the youngest sole Roman emperor, although some historians give that title to Gordian III instead. Alexander appears to have been only a couple of months younger than Gordian at the time of their accession.Alexander became emperor in March 222, at the age of 13 years and 5 months, while Gordian III became emperor in August–September 238, at the age of 13 years and 7–8 months. Alexander's grandmother Maesa believed that he had more potential to rule and gain support from the Praetorian Guard than her other grandson, Elagabalus who was becoming increasingly unpopular.Jasper Burns (2006). Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars. London: Routledge, pp. 214–217. To preserve her own position, she had Elagabalus adopt the young Alexander and then arranged for Elagabalus' assassination, securing the throne for Alexander.Wells, Colin (1997). The Roman Empire, Harvard University Press. The Roman army hailed Alexander as emperor on 13 March 222, and the Senate ratified his acclimation as emperor the following day, conferring on him the titles of Augustus, Pater patriae and Pontifex maximus.Feriale Duranum 20–25: iii I[d]us Ṃ[artias quod] Imp(erator) [Caesar M(arcus) Aurelius Severus Alexander im]peratọṛ ap[pellat]ụ[s... [Pridie Idu]ṣ [Martias q]uod Ạ[lexander Augustus no]ṣ[ter Augustus et Pater] [Patriae et Pontife]x̣ Max̣[imus appellatus s]ịṭ supp̣[licat]io.
Throughout his life, Alexander relied heavily on guidance from his grandmother, Maesa, before her death in 224, and mother, Julia Mamaea. As a young, immature, and inexperienced adolescent, Alexander knew little about government, warcraft, or the role of ruling over an empire. In time, however, the army came to admire what Jasper Burns refers to as "his simple virtues and moderate behavior, so different from [Elagabalus]".
Domestic achievements Under the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state. He employed noted jurists, such as Ulpian, to oversee the administration of justice. His advisers were men like the senator and historian Cassius Dio, and historical sources claimed that with the help of his family, he created a select board of 16 senators, although this claim is sometimes disputed. Some scholars have rejected Herodian's view that Alexander expanded senatorial powers. He also created a municipal council of 14 who assisted the urban prefect in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome.Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 33:1 Excessive luxury and extravagance at the imperial court were diminished,Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 15:1 and he restored the Baths of Nero in 227 or 229; consequently, they are sometimes also known as the Baths of Alexander after him. He extended the imperial residence at the Horti Lamiani on the Esquiline Hill with elaborate buildings, and created the Nymphaeum of Alexander (known as the Trophies of Marius), which still stands in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. This was the great fountain he built at the end of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct.
Upon his accession he reduced the silver purity of the denarius from 46.5% to 43%the actual silver weight dropped from 1.41 grams to 1.30 grams; however, in 229 he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity and weight to 45% and 1.46 grams. The following year he decreased the amount of base metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity and weight again to 50.5% and 1.50 grams. Additionally, during his reign taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged;Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:6 and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest.Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:2
In religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind. According to the Historia Augusta, he wished to erect a temple to Jesus but was dissuaded by the pagan priests; however, this claim is unreliable as the Historia Augusta is considered untrustworthy by historians, containing significant amounts of information that is false and even invented, extending to when it was written and the number of authors it was written by.Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 43:6–7 He allowed a synagogue to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the Torah known as the Severus Scroll.
In legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their will, whereas civilians had strict restrictions over who could become heirs or receive a legacy. He also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills, protected the rights of soldiers to their property when they were on campaign, and reasserted that a soldier's property acquired in or because of military service (his castrense peculium) could be claimed by no one else, not even the soldier's father.
Military discipline Alexander's reign was also characterized by a significant breakdown of military discipline. In 228, the Praetorian Guard murdered their prefect, Ulpian, in Alexander's presence. Alexander could not openly punish the ringleader of the riot, and instead removed him to a nominal post of honor in Egypt and then Crete, where he was "quietly put out of the way" sometime after the excitement had abated. The soldiers then fought a three-day battle against the populace of Rome, and this battle ended after several parts of the city were set on fire.
Dio was among those who gave a highly critical account of military discipline during the time, saying that the soldiers would rather just surrender to the enemy. Different reasons are given for this issue; Campbell points to ...the decline in the prestige of the Severan dynasty, the feeble nature of Alexander himself, who appeared to be no soldier and to be completely dominated by his mother's advice, and lack of real military success at a time during which the empire was coming under increasing pressure. Herodian, on the other hand, was convinced that "the emperor's miserliness (partly the result of his mother's greed) and slowness to bestow donatives" were instrumental in the fall of military discipline under Alexander.
Persian War On the whole, Alexander's reign was prosperous until the rise of the Sassanids under Ardashir I. In 231 AD, Ardashir invaded the Roman provinces of the east, overrunning Mesopotamia and penetrating possibly as far as Syria and Cappadocia, forcing from the young Alexander a vigorous response.Arthur E.R. Boak (1921). A History Of Rome To 565 A.D., New York: The Macmillan Company, chap. XVIII., p. 258 Of the war that followed there are various accounts. According to the most detailed authority, Herodian, the Roman armies suffered a number of humiliating setbacks and defeats,Herodian, 6:5–6:6 while according to the Historia AugustaHistoria Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 55:1–3 as well as Alexander's own dispatch to the Roman Senate, he gained great victories. Making Antioch his base, he organized in 233 a three-fold invasion of the Sassanian Empire; at the head of the main body he himself advanced to recapture northern Mesopotamia, while another army invaded Media through the mountains of Armenia, and a third advanced from the south in the direction of Babylon. The northernmost army gained some success, fighting in mountainous territory favorable to the Roman infantry, but the southern army was surrounded and destroyed by Ardashir's skilful horse-archers, and Alexander himself retreated after an indecisive campaign, his army wracked by indiscipline and disease.Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. VIII., p. 182Herodian, 6:5:10 Further losses were incurred by the retreating northern army in the inclement cold of Armenia as it retired into winter quarters, due to a failure through incompetence to establish adequate supply lines.Herodian, 6:6:3 Still, Mesopotamia was retaken, and Ardashir was not thereafter able to extend his conquests, though his son, Shapur, would obtain some success later in the century.
Although the Sassanids were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. In 232, there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, which proclaimed Taurinus emperor.Epitome de Caesaribus, 24:2 Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates. The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233.