Caciquism is a network of political power wielded by local leaders called "", aimed at influencing electoral outcomes. It is a feature of some modern-day societies with incomplete democratization.(ca) Caciquism in the Gran Enciclopèdia Catalana"Caciquism" entry in Encyclopædia Britannica.
In historiography, journalism, and intellectual circles of the era, the term describes the political system of the Bourbon Restoration in Spain (1874-1923). Joaquín Costa's influential essay ("Oligarchy and Caciquism") in 1901 popularized the term."[...] the existence of caciquismo did not begin in regenerationist times, but it was then when it was coined as one of the various "evils of the fatherland" that afflicted intersecular Spain [...]. [...] this binomial [oligarchy and caciquismo] of Costa's, which has become the title of history books and manuals, continues to be, more than a century later, the most widely used to characterize the restorationist period. [...] The fact [...] of emphasizing oligarchy and caciquism exclusively in the period of the Restoration (1875-1923) has given rise in Spanish historiography to a compartmentalization into periods that makes it difficult to see lines of continuity in the essentials and hinders notably the understanding of the long trajectories. " (Romero Salvador 2021, p. 9, 21-22) Nonetheless, caciquism was also prevalent in earlier periods in the country, particularly during the reign of Isabella II.[...] we contrast terms that are not mutually exclusive. What is opposed to ''militarism'' are not ''oligarchy'' and ''caciquism'', but ''civilism'' [...]. A militarist regime can also be oligarchic and cacique. In fact, the Elizabethan regime [was] [...] cacique by practice, given that almost all of the twenty-two elections held were won by the party that called them. It was also utilized in other systems, such as in Portugal during the Constitutional Monarchy (1820-1910)Tavares de Almeida 1991. as well as in Argentina(fr) Juan pro (trans. from Spanish by Stéphane Michonneau), "Figure du cacique, figure du caudillo: les languages de la construction nationale en Espagne et en Argentine, 1808-1930", Genèses, no 62, 2006, pp. 27-48 (read online, accessed November 25, 2022) and Mexico(es) Lorenzo Meyer, "Los caciques: Ayer, hoy ¿y mañana?", Letras Libres, December 31, 2000 (read online, accessed December 8, 2022) during a similar time period.
Concept of "cacique" The term "" in Spanish, as well as other Western languages like French, stems from the Arawak term kassequa. It referred specifically to the individuals who had the highest ranking within the Taíno tribes of the West Indies and thus held the title of chief. This linguistic borrowing highlights the historical and cultural connections between these various groups.
Brought back by Christopher Columbus upon his return from his in 1492,Lexicographical and etymological information on "cacique" in the Trésor de la langue française informatisé, on the Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales website.(es) Joan Coromines, Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico. the conquistadors utilized the term and expanded its usage to include the Central American setting and other indigenous groups they encountered, even up to the absolute rulers of the pre-Columbian empires.Romero Salvador 2021, p. 17-32.
The concept of "cacique" differs from "" or "," which originated from feudalism, in its hierarchical inferiority. Caciques serve as privileged intermediaries and main interlocutors between the authority of the "masters" or "" (conquistadors) and the populations they aim to control. A distinction was drawn between the "good caciques" who cooperated obediently with colonial and ecclesiastical authorities - the , and the "bad caciques" who needed to be subdued or dismissed.Romero Salvador 2021, p. 18-19. The term remained in use to "indicate the contrast between the conqueror's authority and the authorities of the defeated".Romero Salvador 2021, p. 17-18. "Situated in that hierarchically intermediate step between the lords and the components of the tribes, the caciques were, more than useful, obligatory for the conquering conquerors." Certainly, "the role of the cacique was to bridge the gap between the Indian population and colonial administration." At the same time, his power in the community was based on his positive relations with the central administration. This allowed him to provide service not only for himself but also for the local administration.Varela Ortega 2001, p. 410.
At least since the eighteenth century, the term has had a broader meaning of "a dominating individual who instills fear and holds influence in a locality," with a negative connotation within the peninsular context. The term "cacique" appears in the 1729 , where it is defined as the "Lord of the vassals, or the Superior in the Province or Pueblos de Indios". Additionally, the definition explains that the term is used metaphorically to refer to the first leader of a Pueblo or Republic who wields more power and commands more respect by being feared and obeyed by those beneath them. As a result, the term came to be applied to individuals who have an overly influential and powerful role in a community.Varela Ortega 2001, p. 409-410.
In the 1884 edition of the Royal Spanish Academy's Diccionario de la lengua española, the term appears with its current meaning, which encompasses both:
The domination or influence of the cacique of a town or comarca. The abusive interference of a person or authority in certain matters, using his power or influence.
The influence of the cacique extends beyond the political sphere and encompasses all human interactions. Consequently, the term "cacique" has evolved into a timeless and universal concept, applicable to any societal group and context in reference to power dynamics that involve patronage, clientelism, paternalism, dependence, favors, punishments, thanks, and curses among unequal individuals. The "good cacique" serves as a protective figure, dispensing favors, and contrasts with the "bad cacique" who represses, excludes, or deprives.Romero Salvador 2021, p. 19.
Related terms During the time, the Spanish press utilized the term "caudillismo" ( or ) interchangeably with "caciquism" to describe the rule of the caciques, who were then referred to as "caudillos".
The term "", meaning "injustice, arbitrary action [by a ]", is also derived from "cacique".(es) "Cacicada" entry archive in the Diccionario de la lengua española, Real Academia Española.Romero Salvador 2021, p. 20.
Contemporary uses In soccer circles, Argentine defender Iselín Santos Ovejero was nicknamed ("the cacique of the penalty area") in Spanish.
In Spain "Caciquism" in Spain refers to the clientelist network that shaped the political regime of the Restoration, enabling fraud in all general elections. However, this system had also existed during Isabel II's liberal period and the democratic sexennium.Suárez Cortina 2006, p. 96-97. They were able to "manufacture" elections at the central power's whim to ensure political alternation between the conservative and liberal parties, known as the "dynastic parties." This made them a crucial link during the era.Radcliff 2018, p. 146-147Carr 2003, p. 353-354.
During the Bourbon Restoration, the term "cacique" referred to influential figures in specific areas. "Nothing was accomplished without his agreement, and never any actions against him. The power of the cacique was immense in spite of his unofficial role. In cases of conflict with the civil governor - the representative of central authority - the cacique held the final say."Pérez 1996, p. 613 With the local population under his control and votes not taking place via secret ballot -a phenomenon not unique to Spain- the cacique could easily determine the outcome of elections.Radcliff 2018, p. 146 : "large businessmen or landowners could intimidate their employees at the time of casting the ballot, bureaucrats with connections in Madrid could get permission to build the desired road in exchange for votes, or local officials could fill the electoral roll with deceased individuals. All these mechanisms worked in part because there was no secret ballot, no confirmation of the voter's identity, and no independent control of the polling place."
In the boss/customer relationship, points out that an individual in a superior position (boss) provides protection or benefits to a person in an inferior position (customer) by leveraging their resources and influence. In exchange, the customer reciprocates by offering general support, assistance, and sometimes even personal services.Suárez Cortina 2006, p. 98. "The patron/client relationship is not, in itself, a relationship of force, although there are undoubtedly a multitude of circumstances that force the client to place himself in the hands of the patron. The relationship is based on the idea of mutual benefit and the exclusion of others in the access to the resources managed by the clientelist system." On the other hand, clienteles generally remain indifferent to ideologies, programs, or political affiliations in regards to their collective projection. "And this tendency, of course, reduced the ideological aspects of politics," observes . Furthermore, clients anticipated receiving personal favors.Varela Ortega 2001, p. 416-417.
Alongside "oligarchy," the term "caciquism" commonly depicted the political regime during the Restoration era. José Varela Ortega positions the beginning of the caciquist system near 1845, prior to which the administration held less sway compared to after that time. Caciquism dominated the dispute between local and central administration, specifically local notables versus caciques and landowners versus civil servants. The Caciquist era of interference by administration and party officials against local notables began after 1845 due to centralization and single-member districts. In 1850, the Count of San Luis established the "Family Assemblies [Cortes]," which ushered in the era of administrative or royal elections. The government actively intervened in the elections. In other words, the government exerted "leadership" rather than "legitimate influence," as the 1930s notables were labeled.Varela Ortega 2001, p. 465-466.
With this in mind, Varela Ortega states that Cánovas did not invent caciquism.Often described as the "architect" of the Restoration's political system. Rather, it was already present and was distributed more systematically during the Restoration. However, starting in 1850 and particularly in the 1860s and 1870s, the government interfered in elections, taking the place of a non-existent electorate. Similarly, party organizations exploited the administration for their own partisan goals, just as they did during the Restoration.