This is a compilation of the properties of different analog materials used to simulate deformational processes in structural geology. Such experiments are often called analog or analogue models. The organization of this page follows the review of rock analog materials in structural geology and tectonics of Reber et al. 2020.
Materials used to simulate upper crustal deformation
These materials need to exhibit brittle deformation upon failure as well as elastic and viscous deformation before failure.
Materials that simulate upper crustal deformation
MaterialApplicationsStudiesPlexiglas and glassPlexiglas and glass is useful for many applications. Some of which are:
stress analysis of grains fracturing earthquake dynamicsErdogan & Sih 1963; Thomas and Pollard 1993; Cooke & Pollard,1996; Daniels & Hayman, 2008; Lu, Lapusta & Rosakis, 2007; Owens & Daniels, 2011; Rubino, Rosakis, & Lapusta, 2019GelatinGelatin has been used to simulate:
tensile fracturing thrust faults dyke and sill emplacementBot, vanAmerongon, Groot, Hoekstra, & Agterof, 1996; Brizzi, Funiciello, Corbi, Di Giuseppe, & Mojoli, 2016; Canon-Tapia and Merle, 2006; Corbi et al., 2011; Corbi et al., 2013; Di Giuseppe et al., 2009; Hyndman & Alt, 1987; Kavanagh, Menand, & Daniels, 2013; Kavanagh, Menand, & Sparks, 2006; Kervyn, Ernst, de Vires, Mathieu, & Jacobs, 2009; Kobchenko et al., 2014; Lee, Reber, Hayman, & Wheeler, 2016; Menand & Tait, 2002; Pollard, 1973; Rivalta, Bottinger, & Dahm, 2005; Touvet, Balmforth, Craster, & Sutherland, 2011; van Otterloo & Cruden, 2016FoamFoam is mostly used as an analog simulating elastic loading on the crust between earthquake events. If the foam used has a low stiffness, it can be dynamically scaled to preexisting fault surfaces' and earthquake cyclesAnooshehpoor & Brune, 1999; Anooshehpoor, Heaton, Shi & Brune, 1999;Anooshehpoor, A., Heaton, T. H., Shi, B. P., & Brune, J. N. (1999). Estimates of the ground accelerations at Point Reyes Station during the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 89(4), 845-853. Brune,1973;Brune, J. N. (1973). Earthquake modeling by stick-slip along precut surfaces in stressed foam rubber Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 63(6), 2105-2119. Caniven et al., 2015; Rosenau et al., 2017; Rosenau, Lohrmann, & Oncken, 2009; Rosenau & Oncken, 2009ClaysClay is used to simulate deformation in the upper crust through distributed deformation and localized failure. The properties of clay depend on the mineralogy, grain size distribution and water content.Bonanno, et al., 2017; Bonini et al., 2016; Cooke and van der Elst, 2012; DeGroot & Lunne, 2007;DeGroot, D. J., & Lunne, T. (2007). Measurement of Remoulded Shear Strength. Norwegian Geotechnical Institute. Report, 20061021--20061023. Eisenstadt & Sims, 2005; Hatem, Cooke, & Toeneboehn, 2017; Henza, Withjack, & Schlische, 2010; Kenny, 1967;Kenny, T. C. (1967). The influence of mineral composition on the residual strength of natural soils. TRID, 1, 123-129. Mitra & Paul, 2011; Paul & Mitra, 2013; Toeneboehn, 2017;Toeneboehn, K., 2017, Exploring Long-term Fault Evolution in Obliquely Loaded Systems Using Tabletop Experiments and Digital Image Correlation Techniques [MS: University of Massachusetts Amherst]. Toeneboehn, 2018; White, 1949;White, A. W. (1949). Atterberg plastic limits of clay minerals. American Mineralogist: Journal of Earth and Planetary Materials, 34, 508-512. Withjack, Henza, & Schlische, 2017
Dry granular materials
MaterialApplicationsStudiesSandDuring deformation, sand exhibits distributed deformation, compaction followed by dilatation, prior to failure via grain rearrangement. Sand is often used to simulate folding or faulting.Abdelmalak et al., 2016; Cobbold, Durand, & Mourgues, 2001; Daniels & Hayman, 2008; Davis, Suppe, & Dahlen,1983; Galland, Burchardt, Hallot, Mourgues, & Bulois, 2014; Galland, Cobbold, Hallot, d'Ars, & Delavaud, 2006; Gomes, 2013; Hayman, Ducloue, Foco, & Daniels, 2011; Herbert et al., 2015; Lohrmann et al, 2003; Panien, Buiter, Schreurs, & Pfiffner, 2006; Rosenau et al., 2009Micro beadsMicro beads are useful for:
Situations where low friction and mechanical layering are desired in crustal and lithospheric models Salt tectonic modeling because of adjustable densityBoutelier, Schrank, & Cruden, 2008; Dooley, Jackson, & Hudec, 2007; Dooley, Jackson, & Hudec, 2009; Duffy et al., 2018; Hudec, Jackson, & Schttltz-Ela, 2009; Jackson et al., 2019 Rossi & Storti, 2003; Schellart, 2000OtherLentilsLentils have been used to study the distribution of shear surfaces observed in clay rich sediments.Tarling & Rowe, 2016Crushed Walnut ShellsCrushed walnut shells have been used for their low density and non-abrasive nature.Cruz, Teyssier, Perg, Take, & Fayon, 2008Poppy SeedsPoppy seeds were used in an analog model as particles in suspension for determining the yield strength of subliquidus basalt.Hoover, Cashman, & Manga, 2001RiceRice has been used to simulate earthquakes and fault roughness.Rosenau et al., 2009SugarSugar has been used:
In subduction earthquake cycle models As an analog for the brittle upper crustMoore, Vendeville, & Wiltschko, 2005; Rosenau et al., 2009; Schellart, 2000; Schellart & Strak, 2016Sand-hemihydrate calcium sulphateSand-hemihydrate calcium sulphate mixtures, in different mixing ratios, are used as an "ultra-weak" sandstone to simulate fault and fracture processes in analogue modelling at the outcrop scale (about 10 m).Massaro et al., 2022; Massaro et al., 2023; Massaro et al., 2025
Materials used to simulate deformation of the lower crust and mantle
Various fluids are used to simulate deformation of the lower crust and mantle, such as: linear, non-linear, and yield stress fluids. Fluid typeMaterialApplicationStudiesLinear viscous fluidsSilicone Oils/PolymersSilicone oils/polymers can have varying viscosities, which can be changed by adding fillers (dry granular materials) or colic acid.
In combination with brittle model materials, silicone oils/polymers can investigate many processes in salt tectonics, including the deformation of sediments adjacent and above a salt body.Boutelier, Schrank, & Cruden, 2008; ten Grotenhuis et al., 2002; Weijermars, 1986; Brun & Fort, 2004; Brun & Mauduit, 2009; Cobbold, Szatmari, Demercian, Coelho, & Rossello, 1995;Cobbold, P. R., Szatmari, P., Demercian, L. S., Coelho, D., & Rossello, E. A. (1995). Seismic and experimental evidence for thin-skinned horizontal shortening by convergent radial gliding on evaporites, deep-water Santos Basin, Brazil (Vol. 65). Dooley & Hudec, 2017; Dooley et al., 2009; Dooley, Jackson & Hudec, 2013; Dooley, Jackson & Hudec, 2015; Duffy et al., 2018; Letouzey, Colletta, Vially & Chermette, 1995; Smit, Brun, Fort, Cloetingh, & Ben-Avraham, 2008; Vendeville & Jackson, 1992; Weijermars, 1986; Weijermars, Jackson, & Vendeville, 1993Honey*Honey, glucose syrup, and molasses exhibit strain independent deformation. The viscosity depends on the sugar content and temperature of the material. This makes them suitable to simulate the lower crust and mantle.
*Honey can also be used as a non-linear viscous fluid under certain conditions.Schellart, 2011Glucose SyrupMolassesGum RosinGum rosin was used to study thermomechanical processes in the lithospheric mantle.Cobbold & Jackson, 1992WaterWater has been used to model any low viscosity material. Paola et al., 2006Non-linear viscous fluidsSilicone Oils/PolymersSilicone is also used as a non-linear viscous material by adding high amounts of filler. The most common filler material used is plasticine.Boutelier et al., 2008; Rudolf, Boutelier, Rosenau, Schreurs, & Oncken, 2016Bingham fluidParaffin WaxParaffin wax can be used in analog experiments as a linear or non-linear yield stress fluid. By mixing paraffin wax with petrolatum, the yield stress, shear thinning, and shear softening behavior can be modified. Duarte et al., 2014; Rossetti et al., 1999Rossetti, F., Ranalli, G., and Faccenna, C., 1999, Rheological properties of paraffin as an analogue material for viscous crustal deformation: Journal of Structural Geology, v. 21, no. 4, p. 413-417.PetrolatumPetrolatum is commonly used as:
A filler with paraffin wax A lubricant
At this time, pure petrolatum has not been used for analog material.Cobbold, 1975; Duarte et al., 2014; Neurath and Smith, 1892Hershel-Bulkley fluidCarbopolCarbopol has been used in analogue models of:
Gravity driven flow Rayleigh-Benard-like convection Localized shear zones Thermal intrusions Semi-brittle processesBalmforth & Rust, 2009; Birren & Reber, 2019; Davaille et al., 2013; Di Federico et al., 2017; Reber et al., 2015; Schrank, Boutelier, & Cruden, 2008
Materials used to simulate deformation of the middle crust
Composite Model Materials
Composite materials combine phases with different physical properties. A common composite mixture contains dry granular materials and fluids. These analog materials have been used:
Sediment transport (Parker et al., 1982Parker, G., Dhamotharan, S., and Stefan, H., 1982, Model experiments on mobile, paved gravel bed streams Water Resources Research, v. 18, no. 5, p. 1395-1408.) using low viscosity fluids Dynamics in the middle crust (Mookerjee et al., 2017; Reber et al., 2014Reber, J. E., Hayman, N. W., & Lavier, L. L. (2014). Stick-slip and creep behavior in lubricated granular material: insights into the brittle-ductile transition. Geophysical Research Letters, 41, 3471-3477.) employing high viscosity fluids Stick-slip dynamics (Higashi and Sumita, 2009; Reber et al., 2014) Strain softening and hardening processes (Panien et al., 2006)
The most commonly used granular materials in composite mixtures are:
Sand Glass beads Acrylic discs
Common fluids used in composite mixtures are: Carbopol Silicone Wax, which can behave as a brittle or viscous material depending on the melting temperature (Mookerjee et al., 2017)
Visco-elasto-plastic model materials Visco-elasto-plastic deformation exhibits a combination of elastic, viscous, and plastic deformation at the same time. Various asphalts and bituminous materials demonstrate visco-elasto-plastic deformation but they are rarely as modeling materials (McBirney and Best, 1961).Common modeling materials demonstrating complex rheology are;
Carbopol (Piau, 2007; Shafiei et al., 2018) Kaolinite clay (Cooke and van der Elst, 2012)
References