Buddhism in Vietnam (Vietnamese: Đạo Phật, 道佛 or Phật Giáo, 佛教), as practiced by the Vietnamese people, is a form of East Asian Mahayana Buddhism. It is the second largest religion in Vietnam. According to the Vietnamese government's 2019 National Population and Housing Census, approximately 4.6 million individuals identified as Buddhists, representing about 4.8% of the total population at that time. However, the U.S. Department of State's 2023 Report on International Religious Freedom cites Vietnam's "White Book", stating that the Buddhist population increased from nearly 10 million in 2008 to approximately 14 million in 2021, which accounts for 13.3% of the overall population of Vietnam.
Buddhism may have first come to Vietnam as early as the 3rd or 2nd century BCE from the Indian subcontinent or from China in the 1st or 2nd century CE.Cuong Tu Nguyen. Zen in Medieval Vietnam: A Study of the Thiền Uyển Tập Anh. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997, pg 9. Vietnamese Buddhism has had a syncretic relationship with certain elements of Taoism, Chinese spirituality, and Vietnamese folk religion.Cuong Tu Nguyen & A.W. Barber 1998, pg 132. Theravada Buddhism also exists, as well as indigenous forms of Vietnamese Buddhism such as Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương and Hòa Hảo.
Vietnamese Buddhism is generally inclusive and syncretic, drawing on the main Chinese Buddhist traditions, such as Tiantai (Vietnamese: Thiên Thai) and Huayan (Hoa Nghiêm), Zen (Thiền), and Pure Land (Tịnh Độ).Cuong Tu Nguyen & A.W. Barber. "Vietnamese Buddhism in North America: Tradition and Acculturation". in Charles S. Prebish and Kenneth K. Tanaka (eds). The Faces of Buddhism in America. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998, pg 130.Prebish, Charles. Tanaka, Kenneth. The Faces of Buddhism in America. 1998. p. 134
History
Buddhism has a long history in Vietnam. The religion's history in the country spans various periods, from its initial entry during the early centuries of the first millennium CE to the modern era. Vietnamese research teams have gathered previously unknown data from archaeological finds and ancient archival records to provide historical analysis and cultural interpretation.
Early history There are conflicting theories regarding whether Buddhism first reached Vietnam during the 3rd or 2nd century BCE via delegations from India, or during the 1st or 2nd century from China.Nguyen Tai Thu. The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. 2008. In either case, by the end of the 2nd century CE, Vietnam had developed into a major regional Mahayana Buddhist hub, centering on Luy Lâu in modern Bắc Ninh Province, northeast of the present-day capital city of Hanoi. Luy Lâu was the capital of the Han region of Jiaozhi and was a popular destination visited by many Indian Buddhist missionary monks en route to China. The monks followed the maritime trade route from the Indian subcontinent to China used by Indian traders. A number of Mahayana sutras and the āgamas were translated into Classical Chinese there, including the Sutra of Forty-two Chapters and the Anapanasmrti-sutra. Jiaozhi was the birthplace of Buddhist missionary Kang Senghui, who was of Sogdian origin.
Early Buddhist missionaries included the Indian monks Mahajivaka and Kalacarya. Mahajivaka and Kalacarya arrived together in Luy Lâu, the headquarters of Governor Shishee (Si Nhiep), towards the end of the Han dynasty Emperor Lingdi's reign (168-189 AD). While Kalacarya stayed in Giao Châu (modern Jiaozhou), Mahajivaka continued to China. Kalacarya's name, possibly transliterated from Sanskrit meaning "black sage," suggests he might have been a Dravidian from Southern India. The presence of numerous Indian monks in Giao Chau accompanying Si Nhiep is noted in a letter from Vien Huy to Tuan Huc in 207 A.D.
The Li Huo Lun, a Buddhist primer, was written by Mouzi, a Chinese scholar who became a Buddhist in Giao Chau and later returned to China. Mouzi sought asylum in Giao Chau due to the turmoil in China after Emperor Lingdi's death. Despite being invited to a high-ranking post by Governor Shishee, Mouzi refused, preferring to study. After his mother's death, he dedicated himself to Buddhism and Taoism, using writings to defend Buddhism against those who saw it as a betrayal of the Classics.
The 3rd to 5th Centuries saw further figures like Kararuci and Dao Thanh who spread "lotus-meditation". This era also saw the writing of the Bach Hac Luan ("Discussion between Black and White") by the monk Hue Lam. Hue Lam rejected the Pure Land school, possibly seeking to reconcile Confucianism and Buddhism. The self-immolation of the monk Dam Hoang, and his visible ascent to the Pure Land, is interpreted as a monastic defense of Pure Land teaching and a refutation of Hue Lam. An exchange of letters between Chinese official Li Miao and two Vietnamese monks, Dao Cao and Phap Minh, reveals the impact of doctrinal controversy. Dao Cao was identified as a Vietnamese monk from Giao Chau. Hue Lam's criticisms in Bach Hac Luan, published in 435 under Song Emperor Wendi, coincided with official efforts to restrict pagoda construction and statue casting due to waste, adding context to the debates.
The first Ch'an (Zen) sect in Vietnam was founded by Vinitaruci and Phap Hien. Vinitaruci, an Indian monk tonsured in China, transmitted Chinese Ch'an to Vietnam around 580 A.D. He arrived at Pháp Vân Pagoda in March 580 and trained people there until his death in 591. His teachings emphasized the Prajña ('wisdom of emptiness') tradition and 'direct transmission' of bodhi ('enlightenment') from Master to disciple. He also translated prayers. Phap Hien succeeded Vinitaruci as the second Patriarch of this sect. The second Ch'an sect in Vietnam was named after its founder, Wu Yantong. Wu Yantong was a Chinese monk ordained by Bai Zhang. He arrived in Vietnam in 820 A.D. and transmitted his 'Buddha-heart seal' to Cam Thanh before his death in 826 A.D.. The sect emphasized Bai Zhang's doctrine of 'no-thinking'. Thien Hoi was the third Patriarch. The transmission lineage is traced through Chinese masters like Hui Neng and Ma Daoyi to Bai Zhang. Prominent monks from the Vinitaruci (Tỳ Ni Đa Lưu Chi) sect included Pháp Thuận and Ma Ha (tenth generation), Thien Ong and Sung Pham (eleventh generation), and Vạn Hạnh (twelfth generation).
Over the next eighteen centuries, Vietnam and China shared many common features of cultural, philosophical and religious heritage as a result of geographical proximity and northern parts of Vietnam being annexed twice by China. Vietnamese Buddhism is thus related to Chinese Buddhism in general, and to some extent reflects the formation of Chinese Buddhism after the Song dynasty. Meanwhile, in 875 new Cham king Indravarman II who was a devout Mahayana Buddhist, established Mahayana as Champa's state religion, and built the large monastery complex of Đồng Dương. His dynasty continued to rule Champa until the late 10th century.
Dynastic period During the Đinh dynasty (968–980), Mahayana Buddhism was recognized by the state as an official religion (~971), reflecting the high esteem of Buddhist faith held by the Vietnamese monarchs, included some influences from the Vajrayana section.Nguyen Tai Thu 2008, pg 77. The Early Lê dynasty (980–1009) also afforded the same recognition to the Buddhist sangha. The growth of Buddhism during this time is attributed to the recruitment of erudite monks to the court as the newly independent state needed an ideological basis on which to build a country. Subsequently, this role was ceded to Confucianism.Nguyen Tai Thu 2008, pg 75.
Vietnamese Buddhism reached its zenith during the Lý dynasty (1009–1225), beginning with the founder Lý Thái Tổ, who was raised in a Buddhist temple.Nguyen Tai Tu Nguyen 2008, pg 89. All of the emperors during the Lý dynasty professed and sanctioned Buddhism as the state religion. This endured with the Trần dynasty (1225–1400), but Buddhism had to share the stage with the emerging growth of Confucianism. During the Lý Buddhism saw significant development as Vietnamese society became more stable and the centralized state consolidated. The Buddhist belief in benevolence influenced royal policies. Buddhist activities and celebrations created unique cultural characteristics, with numerous festivals for the inauguration of pagodas and towers built by the state. Local pagodas were also built. This period saw the continued presence of the Vinitaruci and Wu Yantong sects. Some monks in the Wu Yantong sect are believed to have practiced Tantrism, including Không Lộ and Giác Hải, and possibly Bát Nhã from the Thảo Đường sect. The Pure Land sect and the cults of Avalokitesvara and Amitabha were also widespread and influenced Chan sects. Thiền Uyển Tập Anh, compiled during the later Trần period, is a valuable document for studying Buddhism under the Lý dynasty.
A major development under the Trần dynasty (1010-1225) was the establishment of the Trúc Lâm school of Zen. Emperor Trần Nhân Tông founded this sect after leaving his family in 1299, becoming its first ancestor. Monk Phap Loa and Monk Huyen Quang were the second and third ancestors, respectively. Existing historical documents on the origin of the Trúc Lâm sect are not fully clear. Emperor Trần Thái Tông (r. 1226–58) was a significant figure, writing several Buddhist articles and texts collected in Khóa Hư Lục (Instructions on Emptiness). His works included discussions on repentance (Lục Thời Sám Hối Khoa Nghi, Bình Đẳng Lễ Sám Văn) and observing precepts (Thụ Giới Luận, Giới Định Tuệ Luận). Thái Tông's views on meditation differed from Huineng's concept of simultaneous enlightenment, favoring a graduated path.
In the 15th century, the Later Lê dynasty (1428 to 1789), imitating Chinese emperors, privileged Neo-Confucianism and integrated Buddhism further into the state system, leading to state controls on Buddhism. During the later dynastic era Buddhism was increasingly critiqued by Neo-Confucian officials, such as Lê Quát, though it remained popular with the masses.Việt Nam: Borderless Histories – Page 67 Nhung Tuyet Tran, Anthony Reid – 2006 "In this first formal attack in 1370, a Confucian official named Lê Quát attempted, without much success, to brand Buddhism as heretical and to promote Confucianism. Times had drastically changed by Ngô Sĩ Liên's Lê dynasty." Buddhism also influenced the thought of certain intellectuals, such as Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm (1491–1585), an influential poet and philosopher who drew from Daoism, Buddhism and Neoconfucianism. His thought saw the three teachings as different ways of cultivating the Way.Tho Thi Nguyen – Su Cong Le. "The concept of “DAO” in Nguyen Binh Khiem’s philosophy and its current value." DOI: 10.18355/XL.2021.14.03.04EXCERPTS FROM NGUYỄN BỈNH KHIÊM’S INSCRIPTION FOR “THREE BELIEF” TEMPLE Other elite scholars like Nguyễn Trãi, Lương Thế Vinh, and Emperor Lê Thánh Tông (born 1607) also wrote Buddhist works. Emperor Lê Thánh Tông is known for his descriptions of hon (forsaken spirits) trapped in 'aimless wandering' due to having suffered an injustice in their past life. His work, Thập Giới Cô Hồn Quốc Ngữ Văn, on forsaken spirits, was inspired by the Buddhist work Khóa Mông Sơn Thí Thực. While both works deal with the same topic and source, Lê Thánh Tông excluded monarchs, lords, and warriors from the categories of forsaken spirits in his work. These works demonstrate that even while Buddhism lost political influence, it still significantly affected popular thought and appeared in scholarly and popular writings.