Sacca-kiriyā (Pāli; , but more often: satyādhiṣṭhāna) is a solemn declaration of truth, expressed in ritual speech. Most often found in Buddhism, it can be an utterance with regard to one's own virtue, or with regard to a certain fact, followed by a command or resolution. Such a statement is believed to effect a wonder-working power that can benefit oneself and others, depending on the truthfulness of the person making the statement. The sacca-kiriyā is a motif found in the scriptural stories from the Pāli Canon and its commentaries, as well as in post-canonical works such as the Milindapañhā and the Avadānas. In these stories it is found usually as a blessing, but sometimes as a curse. The motif can also be found in Hindu and Jain texts.
The sacca-kiriyā presumes a moral force of truth that is operating in the world, and is stronger than gods or humans. Although sacca-kiriyā often refer to characteristics of the Buddha, the Buddhist teaching, and the monastic community, it can also refer to facts with regard to natural phenomena, such as the sun or the moon. Some scholars believe that the effectiveness of a sacca-kiriyā as portrayed in stories depends on virtue and good character, whereas other scholars understand the sacca-kiriyā to be merely about speaking according to facts. Scholars theorize that the sacca-kiriyā is an ancient belief that precedes Buddhism, but was used in Buddhism as a teaching device to explain Buddhist ethics and other teachings. The principles underlying the sacca-kiriyā have also been connected with Mahatma Gandhi's ideal of non-violent resistance, and many other aspects of Asian culture and religious life.
Definition
Sacca-kiriyā is a compound noun that derives from the root verb saccikaroti, meaning 'to bring before one's eyes, see face to face, realize, experience, attain'. A sacca-kiriya is a solemn asseveration with regard to the truth, expressed as a ritualized speech act. It is usually a truthful utterance with regard to having performed a certain virtue, followed by a command or resolution, called a 'truth-command' (, ). The sacca-kiriyā will usually contain a phrase "By this truth may..." () or "By this power may..." (), followed by the command or wish. It is generally made with a specific end in mind, such as to control a spirit, a physical object, or cause something to be done. Other examples given in the traditional literature are restoring eyesight after blindness, causing other living beings to help, causing pregnancy, and causing a sea to retreat. Virtues referred to are to have never hurt a living being, having performed generosity, kindness, religious devotion and other virtues. The truthfulness in these virtues is considered the "ground" () for the realization of the sacca-kiriyā, but the ground need not be causally related to it. Sometimes, the sacca-kiriyā is finished with certain symbolic rituals, such as the pouring of water, bathing and putting on new garments, and so forth. The sacca-kiriyā is always a formal act. Indologist George Thompson uses the term "performative utterance" as coined by philosopher J. L. Austin, because the sacca-kiriyā manages to realize the statement "in the very uttering".
The Indic sacca-kiriyā is in its essence very similar to oaths that can be found in ancient Indo-European literature. It differs, however, in that the speaker does not necessarily commit to a course of action, but rather expresses a performative utterance, which is immediate and miraculous in nature.
Well-known examples
There are many examples in literature and in Asian history of people making a sacca-kiriyā. The most well-known is that of the Buddha himself. On the evening of his enlightenment, as the Buddha is about to attain enlightenment, he is challenged by Māra, the Buddhist personification of evil. Māra tries to stop the Buddha from attaining enlightenment by accusing him of having no right to sit on the seat beneath the tree of enlightenment, and challenging him to find a witness to his claim of enlightenment. The Buddha-to-be then calls Mother Earth to testify of his perfections of virtue on the evening of his enlightenment, the earth symbolizing truth and righteousness. He refers to the virtues he has practiced for many lifetimes. When the earth confirms the Buddha's claims, Māra retreats. In another example, the Buddha-to-be places a bowl upon the surface of the water. He declares that if he is to attain Buddhahood that evening, let the bowl float upwards against the stream, which then happens according to his declaration. In another widely quoted Jātaka story, a quail is about to see its nest and fellow birds consumed by a forest fire. After the bird makes a statement about the "efficacy of virtue" () and "efficacy of truth" (), and by expanding on the virtues of the Buddhas in the past, the fire miraculously retreats.
A legendary example of a sacca-kiriyā referring to a future act is emperor Ashoka, who vows that by the truth of his intention to support and sustain Buddhism, a dying Bodhi Tree may be saved, which then happens according to his vow. Another example raised by Indologist Richard Gombrich is that of the Sri Lankan King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi, who used a sacca-kiriyā in warfare. And more recently, the Buddhist reformer Anagārika Dharmapāla referred to his good intentions for restoring the pilgrimage site Bodh Gaya into Buddhist hands, and resolved that by those intentions help would come in this campaign.
Tradition Name text Speaker Truth referred to in the story Statement made Theravāda Buddhism Sivi Jātaka King Sivi giving his eyes away "If this saying is true, may the eye be restored!" Theravāda Buddhism Milindapañhā the courtesan Bindumatī freedom from fondness and contempt towards her clients to cause the great Ganges to flow against the current Theravāda Buddhism Paṇḍara Jātaka a snake king that an ascetic is deceiving the snake king "If this saying is true, let your head split into seven pieces!" Theravāda Buddhism Maccha Jātaka a fish never having devoured any other fishes to cause the rain to fall during a drought Theravāda Buddhism Kañhadipayana Jātaka a mother of a sick child not having loved her husband to have the poison removed from her child's body Mūlasarvāstivāda Divyāvadāna Ānanda, disciple of the Buddha the Triple Gem is supreme in the world to heal and make the body of a maimed man whole again Theravāda Buddhism Commentary to the Dhammapada Uttarā not being angry with Sirimā, a courtesan who had a relationship with her husband "If I cherish anger towards her, may this ghee burn me. If not, may it not burn me."Theravāda Buddhism Commentary to the Dhammapada Puṇṇa giving to the monk Sāriputta without reserve "May I be a partaker of the Dhamma you have yourself beheld" Theravāda Buddhism Jātaka Prince Siddhattha to become enlightened in the future throwing a hairknot in the air and letting it remain stationed thereVedic and Sanskrit literatureMahābhārataDamayantiher chastityMay her real husband reveal himself to her, and the gods disguising as her husband fail to disguise themselves.JainismPārśavanātha Caritraa queenher husband, the king, has practiced charity in mindbe able to cross a wild river
Examples of sacca-kiriyā in Indic literature
Motifs and principles The sacca-kiriyā is a motif found in the stories of the Buddhist Pali Canon and its commentaries, as well as in post-canonical works such as the Milindapañhā and the Avadānas. The motif can also be found in Hindu and Jain texts. The motif of the sacca-kiriyā presumes a natural moral force operating in the world. In some stories, as well as in aspirations recorded in inscriptions, mention is also made of merit (; doing good works) as a force behind the miracles that occur. Sometimes the spiritual power of the Triple Gem (the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Saṅgha), or that of deities is also related to it. Nevertheless, the truth of the statement, its agreement to actual events or qualities, is the main principle that is believed to allow a sacca-kiriyā to work: in the words of Indologist Eugene Burlingame, "There is nothing that cannot be accomplished by the Truth. Men, gods, powers of nature, all animate and inanimate things alike obey the Truth." In the Milindapañhā, considered the locus classicus about sacca-kiriyā, the protagonist King Milinda asks how someone's eyesight (referring to a story of King Sivi) could be restored by divine means when this seems to contradict Buddhist doctrine. The monk Nāgasena's reply is that King Sivi did not receive divine help, nor is there a physical cause for the healing, but he was healed "by truth alone".
Although the sacca-kiriyā usually refers to a past act, sometimes devotees may refer to a future act which they will perform, or a good intention that has not yet been acted upon. Sometimes the sacca-kiriyā refers to a fact in the present, but the expressed wish refers to the future. This form is also known as an 'aspiration' () and usually involves an aim in a future life. Moreover, a sacca-kiriyā can be performed for another person's benefit, for example to heal another person. In this case, the speaker may refer to the other's person virtue, rather than his own. Devotees performing a sacca-kiriyā may also refer to a truthful statement about the Triple Gem. An example of this is the statement that the Buddha is born "for the salvation of all beings". In the Buddhist text Ratana Sutta many other examples are given. Lastly, at times, a sacca-kiriya may refer to the reality of certain natural phenomena, such as the sun or moon, or the characteristics of certain places, or simply a factual statement, even a failure to do something or a mistake made. In general, however, the effectiveness of the utterance depends on the speaker's truthfulness and the religious merit the speaker possesses.
Buddhist tales relate that not only spiritually advanced people can perform a sacca-kiriyā, but also common people, although this is less common in pre-Buddhist Vedic literature. Furthermore, in the literature examples exist of people using a sacca-kiriyā to deceive or curse others, or in other ways act in an anti-social way. Even these people have the power to control the outside environment and people through a sacca-kiriyā. Certain people with an immoral reputation in the stories, such as the courtesan Bindumatī, are also depicted as being able to do miracles, based on a truthful statement they make. In the case of the courtesan the truth is that she is "free alike from fawning and contempt" for her clients, regardless of their caste. Buddhism scholar Luis Gómez argued that the truth of the courtesan was simply that she never denied being a courtesan.
Scholars are not in agreement what determines the power of the sacca-kiriyā. Judging from the story of courtesan Bindumatī, religion scholar Malcolm Eckel concludes that the sacca-kiriyā's power is in its underlying intention, not its words. However, South Asian Studies scholar Choy Fah Kong argues that intention is not the major factor that explains the power of the sacca-kiriyā, but rather whether the statement made agrees with facts. In studying examples from Vedic texts, Thompson concludes that the emphasis on self-assertion is a common characteristic in sacca-kiriyā statements, and that they are not necessarily morally motivated. Both disagree with Indologist William Norman Brown, who stressed that the sacca-kiriyā was mostly ethical rather than magical. On the other hand, Indologist Heinrich Lüders stated that the sacca-kiriyā is somewhere "in the middle between oath and magic".
Origins
According to Burlingame, the sacca-kiriyā derives from a belief found everywhere in the world, which underlies many forms of religiosity, both of major religions and of folk religion: the belief that truth has an inherent importance and power in it. He adds, however, that at times it may simply be a deux ex machina device to facilitate story-telling.