Embroidery is the art of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to stitch thread or yarn. It is one of the oldest forms of needlework, a type of textile art, with origins dating back thousands of years across various cultures. Common stitches found in early embroidery include the chain stitch, buttonhole or blanket stitch, running stitch, satin stitch, and cross stitch. Modern embroidery continues to utilize traditional techniques, though many contemporary stitches are exclusive to machine embroidery.
Embroidery is commonly used to embellish accessories and garments and is usually seen on quilts, clothing, and accessories. In addition to thread, embroidery may incorporate materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins to highlight texture and design. Today, embroidery serves both decorative and functional purposes and is utilized in fashion expression, cultural identity, and custom-made gifts.
A person who is doing embroidery is called an embroiderer. An archaic term is broderer, derived from French broderie for 'embroidery'.Broderer
Classification
Embroidery can be classified according to what degree the design takes into account the nature of the base material and by the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric. The main categories are free or surface embroidery, counted-thread embroidery, and needlepoint or canvas work.
In free or surface embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric. Examples include crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery.
Counted-thread embroidery patterns are created by making stitches over a predetermined number of threads in the foundation fabric. Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an even-weave foundation fabric such as embroidery canvas, aida cloth, or specially woven cotton and linen fabrics. Examples include cross-stitch and some forms of blackwork embroidery.
While similar to counted thread in regards to technique, in canvas work or needlepoint, threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric. Examples of canvas work include bargello and Berlin wool work.
Embroidery can also be classified by the similarity of its appearance. In drawn thread work and cutwork, the foundation fabric is deformed or cut away to create holes that are then embellished with embroidery, often with thread in the same color as the foundation fabric. When created with white thread on white linen or cotton, this work is collectively referred to as whitework. However, whitework can either be counted or free. Hardanger embroidery is a counted embroidery and the designs are often geometric. Conversely, styles such as Broderie anglaise are similar to free embroidery, with floral or abstract designs that are not dependent on the weave of the fabric.
History
Origins The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, and the decorative possibilities of sewing led to the art of embroidery. Indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted:
The art of embroidery has been found worldwide and several early examples have been found. The earliest surviving embroidered cloth comes from Egypt. The Egyptians were skilled at embroidery, using appliqué decorations with leather and beads. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period (5th–3rd century BC). and continued to develop over subsequent dynasties, flourishing during the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing periods, when it became an established artistic and cultural practice. Related but distinct embroidery traditions also developed in region of Southeast Asia, such as Nonya beadwork associated with Peranakan communities. While influenced by Chinese techniques, this form reflected a unique cultural synthesis by incorporating local materials and traditions. In a garment from Migration period Sweden, roughly 300–700 AD, the edges of bands of trimming are reinforced with running stitch, back stitch, stem stitch, tailor's buttonhole stitch, and Whip stitch, but it is uncertain whether this work simply reinforced the seams or should be interpreted as decorative embroidery.Coatsworth, Elizabeth: "Stitches in Time: Establishing a History of Anglo-Saxon Embroidery", in .
Historical applications and techniques
Depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a widespread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane. Examples of high status items include elaborately embroidered clothing, religious objects, and household items often were seen as a mark of wealth and status.
In medieval England, Opus Anglicanum, a technique used by professional workshops and guilds in medieval England, was used to embellish textiles used in church rituals. In 16th century England, some books, usually bibles or other religious texts, had embroidered bindings. The Bodleian Library in Oxford contains one presented to Queen Elizabeth I in 1583. It also owns a copy of The Epistles of Saint Paul, whose cover was reputedly embroidered by the Queen.
One of the oldest complete embroidered works still in existence is the Bayeux Tapestry, an embroidered cloth nearly long and tall that depicts the events leading up to the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, led by William, Duke of Normandy, challenging Harold II, King of England, and culminating in the Battle of Hastings. It is thought to date to the 11th century, within a few years of the battle.; ;
In 18th-century England and its colonies, with the rise of the merchant class and the wider availability of luxury materials, rich embroideries began to appear in a secular context. These embroideries took the form of items displayed in private homes of well-to-do citizens, as opposed to a church or royal setting. Even so, the embroideries themselves may still have had religious themes. Samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a skill marking a girl's path into womanhood as well as conveying rank and social standing.
Embroidery was an important art and signified social status in the Medieval Islamic world as well. The 17th-century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the "craft of the two hands". In cities such as Damascus, Cairo and Istanbul, embroidery was visible on handkerchiefs, uniforms, flags, calligraphy, shoes, robes, tunics, horse trappings, slippers, sheaths, pouches, covers, and even on leather belts. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread. Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items.
In the 16th century, in the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, his chronicler Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak wrote in the famous Ain-i-Akbari:
Embroidery was often perceived primarily as a domestic task performed by women, frequently viewed as a leisurely activity rather than recognized as a skilled craft. Women who lacked access to formal education or writing implements often used embroidery to document their lives through stitched narratives, effectively creating personal diaries through textile art, especially when literacy was limited. However, this perception varied across historical contexts. In late Qing China, for example, the embroidery industry expanded significantly, with regional styles emerging and production becoming increasingly commercialized. During this time, men often worked as managing and designing roles, while the women were frequently confined to lower status, more seasonal labor. However, by the early twentieth century, large reform movements aimed to change this system by incorporating embroidery into women's education and vocational training. This helped establish embroidery as both a practical skill and form of artistic expression, expanding women's roles with the field.
Embroidery is also a folk art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger embroidery from Norway; Merezhka from Ukraine; Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland; Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal; Achachi from Peru; and Brazilian embroidery. Many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing.
In marginalized communities, embroidery has also served as a tool of empowerment and expression. For example, in Inner Mongolia, embroidery initiatives arose in response to economic pressures intensified by climate change, including desertification, allowing women to express themselves and preserve cultural identities through traditional embroidery skills. Embroidery has also preserved the stories of marginalized groups, particularly women of color, whose experiences were historically underrepresented in written records. In South African communities, embroidered "story cloths" have captured and preserved critical perspectives and events otherwise missing from historical narratives.
21st century Since the late 2010s, there has been a growth in the popularity of embroidering by hand. As a result of visual social media such as Pinterest and Instagram, artists can share their work more extensively, which has inspired younger generations to pick up needlework.Kouhia, A. (2023). Crafts in the Time of Coronavirus: Pandemic Domestic Crafting in Finland on Instagram’s Covid-Related Craft Posts. M/C Journal, 26(6). https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2932 Mayne, A. (2020). Make/share: Textile making alone together in private and social media spaces. Journal of Arts & Communities, 10(1–2), 95–108. https://doi.org/10.1386/jaac_00008_1
Contemporary embroidery artists believe hand embroidery has grown in popularity as a result of an increasing need for relaxation and digitally disconnecting practices. Many people are also using embroidery to creatively upcycle and repair clothing, to help counteract over-consumption and fashion industry waste.
Modern canvas work tends to follow symmetrical counted stitching patterns with designs emerging from the repetition of one or just a few similar stitches in a variety of hues. In contrast, many forms of surface embroidery make use of a wide range of stitching patterns in a single piece of work.
In literature Embroidery portrays a large function of representation in many literary works. Hobbies in regards to stitching, dressmaking, or quilting have learned to be acquainted with women through the 18th to 19th century. Embroidery alters itself in literary contexts to perform as a symbol instead of a depiction of culture and rooted history. Novels by Jane Austen capture a depiction where women are riddled with silent productivity and installs certain societal norms within a specific gender.
In Greek mythology the goddess Athena is said to have passed down the art of embroidery (along with weaving) to humans, leading to the famed competition between herself and the mortal Arachne.
Traditional hand embroidery around the world