The Indian National Army (INA) was a Japanese sponsored Indian military wing in Southeast Asia during the World War II, particularly active in Singapore, that was officially formed in April 1942 and disbanded in August 1945. It was formed with the help of the Japanese forces and was made up of roughly about 45 000 Indian prisoner of war (POWs) of British Indian Army, who were captured after the fall of Singapore on 15 February 1942. It was initially formed by Rash Behari Bose who headed it till April 1942 before handing the lead of INA over to Subhas Chandra Bose in 1943.
INA was involved in various military operations fighting under the command of the Japanese forces against the British and Allied forces. They are notable for their contributions to the battle fought in Burma, Imphal and Kohima.
Following the defeat of the Japanese, the INA was dissolved in August 1945. The British Raj, never seriously threatened by the INA, charged 300 INA officers with treason in the INA trials, but eventually backtracked in the face of opposition by the Congress.: "Many Indian Army POWs were perplexed by Congress's sudden support for the INA" These trials became a galvanising point in the Indian Independence movement for the Indian National Congress. A number of people associated with the INA during the war later went on to hold important roles in public life in India as well as in other countries in Southeast Asia, most notably Lakshmi Sehgal in India, and John Thivy and Janaki Athinahappan in Malaya.
Background and Context
Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement
One of the more significant independent movements which brought together hundreds of thousands of Indians was Mahatma Gandhi's Non-Cooperation Movement between 1920 and 1922 which aimed to reject British rule through non-violent means such as boycotting British products and consuming only local products. This movement also strengthened nationalistic feelings amongst the Indian population both in India as well as other parts of the world. As a result of this movement Gandhi was arrested and he spent two years in jail. However, the effects of this movement were far reaching as it spurred the emergence of a newer generation of Indians from the Congress Party such as, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari and Subhas Chandra Bose (who would eventually become the leader of the INA) who would later on actively advocate for India's independence.
Pre-1942 Conditions in Singapore and Malaya
In 1941, with the impending arrival of the Japanese troops to the Malay Peninsula during the World War II, the British government had begun sending a large number of Indian troops to the Malay Peninsula and Singapore. It was estimated that were some 37 000 Indian troops stationed in these areas, making up roughly about the 40 percent of the total military strength of the British forces. However, the British-Indian troops stationed begun to experience various problems.
Firstly, the British military was beginning to be spread too thinly and they were unable to allocate much of their resources to the military set up in the Malay Peninsula and Singapore. Secondly, although it appears that the number British-Indian troops swelled from 200,000 to 900,000 between 1939 and 1941, it was made up of very young boys (as a result of the open recruitment policy of the British) who had very little or no combat training and experience, leading to anxiety amongst the British-Indian forces.
Thirdly, the British had already begun to suspect that not all of their Indian Army personnel were loyal to them. This was largely because, towards the end of 1942, the British government had to resort to indiscriminate recruitment in order to maintain the numbers for its army, meaning that it was no longer carefully curating its selection for the armed forces and consequently the British Indian Army was no longer filled with single minded individuals fighting for the same cause. The antagonistic feeling towards the British amongst the Indian soldiers were due to numerous instances of poor treatment they received. By 1941, significant discontent at the abusive attitudes of their British officers was widespread among Indian soldiers.
As such, due to a combination of the above-mentioned factors and conditions, by 1941, the morale of the Indian Army troops was very low and this set up the stage for many soldiers to switch loyalties to the Japanese in 1942.
The Role of the Japanese in the formation of the INA
The circumstances leading up to the formation of the INA have been contested. While some scholars have gone down the nationalistic road, newer scholars have instead challenged these claims and with the aid of new sources been able to shed a different light on the same event. Early accounts trace the founding of the INA to the spontaneous uprising of nationalism among Indian troops in Malaya. More recent accounts, however, suggest the Japanese played a central role in its formation and development.
Plans by the Japanese forces to influence the British-Indian soldiers in Singapore and Malaya had begun as early September 1941. Major Iwaichi Fujiwara was the officer assigned by the Japanese government to head to Bangkok to undertake efforts to “engage in intelligence operations intended to cultivate...Japanese Indian cooperation”. As the first step in his efforts, Major Fujiwara sought out the highly popular but controversial Indian Nationalist, Pritam Singh who had fled from India to avoid arrest by the British government. Pritam Singh was also the General Secretary of the Indian Independence League (IIL) in Thailand, as part of a larger anti-British political organization which operated in various parts of Southeast Asia.
Fujiwara and Pritam held a series of secret discussions during the months of October and November 1941. During these meetings, Pritam managed to convince Fujiwara that the loyalties of the British Indian soldiers could only be attained if the Japanese authorities would promise the future prisoners of war the sparring of their lives. Additionally, Pritam also persuaded Fujiwara to assure the British-Indian soldiers that the Japanese forces would assist the Indians in gaining independence from British colonial rule. Major Fujiwara guaranteed Pritam Singh that they did not harbour any “political, economic, cultural or religious” intentions in India and they would respect the “property and freedom of Indians in territory that came under the sway of the Japanese”.
Following that, Pritam Singh and Major Fujiwara followed the movement of the Japanese troops during their journey from Southern Thailand to Malaya. As they advanced towards Northern Malaya in December 1941, the Japanese forces were able to capture British-Indian soldiers from the 1/14 Punjab regiment and their leader Mohan Singh who would go on to lead the INA later. Mohan Singh was tasked by Fujiwara to “manage the POWs and to maintain law and order in the area”. During this period, Fujiwara was greatly convinced by Mohan Singh's leadership abilities and as such sought Mohan Singh's compliance to aid the Japanese efforts. He also offered Mohan Singh the opportunity to captain this new Indian army .
Although, initially conflicted as he had heard horrific stories about the torture tactics employed by the Japanese forces, Mohan Singh believed that the proposed new Indian armed forces and cooperation with the Japanese forces, would act as a defence mechanism for “Indian soldiers and to protect Indian civilians and property from Japanese exploitation”. As such, Mohan Singh was inclined to agree to Fujiwara's proposal, on the strict condition that Fujiwara agreed to five conditions dictated by Singh. These conditions were:1. Full assistance and collaboration would be extended by the Japanese army in the formation of liberation army for India.2. The present IIL and INA should not be conflated with each other and be allowed to exist separately.3. The POWs should come solely under the purview of Mohan Singh.4. Indian POWs should be offered a choice about whether they wanted to join the INA and POWs who refuse should not be subjected to any form of torture by the Japanese forces.5. The soon to be formed INA should be treated as an ‘allied army’ by the Japanese forces.Fujiwara acceded to Singh's request. Consequently, Mohan Singh was told to immediately head a propaganda movement in order to convince British-Indian soldiers to join the newly formed INA. By January 1942, this propaganda movement led by Mohan Singh was in full force.
Establishing the INA
The Farrer Park Meeting
It was during the Farrer Park Meeting on 17 February 1942, that Fujiwara and Mohan Singh first addressed the 45 000 strong British-Indian POWs. Major Fujiwara assured the POWs that they would be treated as comrades as opposed to POWs. He also repeatedly assured the POWs that if they complied with the Japanese forces, they would be provided with the support and resources to fight against the British forces and clinch independence for India. Fujiwara had hoped that appealing to the nationalistic consciousness and patriotic feelings of these soldiers would enable him to win their support. Despite Fujiwara's impassioned plea, many of the POWs remained unconvinced. It was only when the charismatic Mohan Singh addressed them next, urging them to “seize the opportunity and rise for the motherland” that the POWs begun to seriously consider the proposal to join the INA.
Although the POWs were not coerced into making an immediate decision with regard to joining the INA, the general consensus was that many of the POWs with the exceptions of the higher ranking British officials and the Gurkha contingent were sufficiently convinced.
Treatment of the Indians under the Early Japanese Rule
It would not be until 9 May 1942 that the INA would come into full effect. However, following the events of 17 February 1942 Farrer Park meeting, the Indians in Singapore begun to enjoy special privileges during the Japanese ‘pacification’ of Singapore . This was clearly seen in the vastly different ways in which the Japanese treated the Indians and Chinese. During these early months, it was reported that roughly 50 000 Chinese in Singapore and the Malayan Peninsula were brutally killed in what is now known as the ‘Sook Ching Massacre’ . In contrast, the Indians received far more lenient treatment. However, this is not to say that the Indians felt no fear at all. In fact, the attitudes of the Japanese forces towards the Chinese population did instill some fear in the general Indian civilian population as well as leaders such as Pritam Singh. This was significant for the Indian leaders, during the Farrer Park meeting who had expressed reservations about collaborating with the Japanese as these incidents further cemented their initial beliefs about the cruel nature of the Japanese and would further affirm their decision to not join the INA in May 1942.
Pledging Allegiance to the INA
First Indian National Army formed by General Mohan Singh
Prior to the arrival of Subhash Chandra Bose in Singapore in July 1943, the Indian POW were recruited by the Mohan Singh for the cause of an independent India, it was called the First Indian National Army.
In the months following the Farrer Park meeting and the eventual formation of the INA in May 1942, Indian and Japanese leaders held various meetings with the most notable one held in Tokyo between 28 March 1942 and 30 March 1942. It was during this meeting that Indian leaders carefully negotiated the terms of the INA with the Japanese officials. It was during these series of meetings that Mohan Singh was officially appointed as Commander in Chief for the INA.