Korean architecture () refers to an architectural style that developed over centuries in Korea. Throughout the history of Korea, various kingdoms and royal dynasties have developed a unique style of architecture with influences from Buddhism and Korean Confucianism. Traditional Korean architecture can be mostly recognized by its sloping roofs.
As in the case of other Korean arts, Korean architecture is distinguished by its naturalistic tendencies, simplicity, economy of shape, and avoidance of extremes.
General characteristics In Korean architecture, buildings are structured vertically and horizontally. A construction usually rises from a stone subfoundation to a curved roof covered with tiles, held by a console structure and supported on posts; walls are made of earth (adobe) or are sometimes totally composed of movable wooden doors. Architecture is built according to the kan unit, the distance between two posts (about 3.7 meters), and is designed so that there is always a transitional space between the "inside" and the "outside."
The console, or bracket structure, is a specific architectonic element that has been designed in various ways through time. If the simple bracket system was already in use under the Goguryeo kingdom (37 BC – 668 AD)—in palaces in Pyongyang, for instance—a curved version, with brackets placed only on the column heads of the building, was elaborated during the early Goryeo dynasty (918–1392). The Amita Hall of the Buseok temple in Yeongju is a good example. Later on (from the mid-Goryeo period to the early Joseon period), a multiple-bracket system, or an inter-columnar-bracket set system, was developed under the ancient Han dynasty in China influence during the Mongolian Yuan dynasty (1279–1368). In this system, the consoles were also placed on the transverse horizontal beams. Seoul's Namdaemun Gate Namdaemun, Korea's first national treasure, is perhaps the most symbolic example of this type of structure.
In the mid-Joseon period, the winglike bracket form appeared (an example is the Yongnyongjon Hall of Jongmyo, Seoul), which, according to some authors, better suited the peninsula's poor economic situation that resulted from repetitive invasions. Only in buildings of importance like palaces or sometimes temples (Tongdosa, for instance) were the multicluster brackets still used. Korean Confucianism also led to more sober and simple solutions.
Historical architecture
Prehistoric architecture
In the Paleolithic the first inhabitants of the Korean peninsula used caves, rockshelters, and portable shelters. The remains of a portable shelter dating to were excavated at the Seokjang-ri site in South Chungcheong Province.Jipjari [House]. In Hanguk Gogohak Sajeon [Dictionary of Korean Archaeology], edited by National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Seoul, 2001, pp.1130-1131. The earliest examples of pit-house architecture are from the Jeulmun Pottery Period. Early pit-houses contained basic features such as hearths, storage pits, and space for working and sleeping.
Log houses were built by laying logs horizontally one on top of one another. The interstices between the logs were filled with clay to keep the wind out. Similar houses are still found in mountainous areas those in like Gangwon Province.
Elevated houses, which probably originated in the southern regions, are believed to have first been built as storage houses to store grains out of the reach of animals and to keep them cool. This style still survives in the two-story pavilions and lookout stands erected in melon patches and orchards around the countryside.
In the Mumun period buildings were pit dwellings with walls of wattle-and-daub and thatched roofs. Raised-floor architecture first appeared in the Korean peninsula in the Middle Mumun, c. 850–550 BC.
Megaliths, sometimes called dolmens, are the burials of important and prestigious persons of the Mumun Pottery Period (1500–300 BC). They have been found in great numbers and along with stone-cist burials, megaliths and are the main examples of mortuary architecture in the Mumun. There are three types of megaliths: (1) the southern type, which is low and often a simple slab with supporting stones, (2) the northern type, which is larger and shaped much like a table, and (3) the capstone type, which has a capstone with no supporting stones. The distribution of the dolmens would imply some relation to other global megalithic cultures.
Proto–Three Kingdoms period (c. 1st-2nd century BC to 2nd-3rd century AD) It is a subdivision of what is traditionally called Korea's Three Kingdoms Period and covers the first three centuries of the Common Era. Archaeological evidence of ondol (), the Korean floor panel heating system, was found in the architectural remains of early Protohistoric period.
According to Chinese text Sanguo Zhi, it recorded the existence of three types of prehistoric dwellings in Korea: pit houses, log houses and elevated houses. Only the remains of pit houses have been identified, however. Pit houses consisted of a 20–150 cm deep pit and a superstructure of grass and clay supported by a tripod-like frame made of timber to provide protection from the wind and rain. Pit houses of the Neolithic period had circular or oval pits about 5–6 meters in diameter with a hearth at the center. Most of the early ones were located on hills. As these dwellings moved down nearer to rivers, the pits became rectangular in shape as well as larger, with two separated hearths. In 108 BC, the Chinese commanderies was established after the destruction of Gojoseon. Official buildings of this period were built of wood and brick and roofed with tiles having the features of Chinese construction.
Three Kingdoms period (c. 1st century BC-668)
Common architecture In the Three Kingdoms Period, some people lived in pit-houses while others lived in raised-floor buildings. For example, the Hanseong (, an eastern part of Seoul and western part of Hanam in Gyeonggi Province) Baekje settlement of Seongdong-ri in Gyeonggi Province contained only pit-houses,Seongdong-ri Jibjari [The Seongdong-ri Settlement Site]. In Hanguk Gogohak Sajeon [Dictionary of Korean Archaeology], edited by National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Seoul, 2001, pp. 652-653. while the Silla settlement of Siji-dong in Greater Daegu contained only raised-floor architecture.Siji-dong Yujeok [The Siji-dong Site]. In Hanguk Gogohak Sajeon [Dictionary of Korean Archaeology], edited by National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, Seoul, 2001, pp. 749-751.
Fortress architecture
Goguryeo, the largest kingdom among the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is renowned for its mountain fortresses built horizontally and vertically along the incline of slopes. One of the well-preserved Goguryeo fortresses is Baekam fortress (白巖城) constructed before 6th century in present-day South-West Manchuria. A Chinese historian noted, "The Goguryeo people like to build their palaces well." Patterned tiles and ornate bracket systems were already in use in many palaces in Pyongyang, the capital, and other town-fortresses in what now is Manchuria.
Religious architecture
The construction of Buddhist temples was undertaken after Buddhism was introduced in Korean Goguryeo in 372 by way of northern China. A series of excavations in 1936–1938 unearthed the sites of several major temples near Pyongyang, including those in Cheongam-ri, Wono-ri and Sango-ri. The excavations disclosed that the temples were built in a Goguryeo style known as "three Halls-one Pagoda," with each hall in the east, west and north, and an entrance gate in the south. In most cases, the central pagodas had an octagonal plan. Palace buildings appear to have been arranged in this way as well.
Baekje was founded in 18 BC and its territory included the west coast of the ancient Korea. After the fall of Nangnang County under the Han dynasty in China, Korean Baekje established friendships with China and Japan. Great temples were built during this time. The earliest stone pagoda of the Mireuksa Temple in Iksan county is of particular interest because it shows the transitional features from a wooden pagoda to a stone one. Baekje assimilated diverse influences and expressed its derivation from Chinese models. Later, important elements of the architectural style of Baekje were adopted by Japan.
Baekje was heavily influenced by Goguryeo because the first King Onjo of Baekje was a son of the Goguryeo's first king Go Ju-mong as well as by southern China. As it expanded southward, moving its capital to Ungjin (current Gongju) in 475 and to Sabi (current Buyeo) in 538, its arts became richer and more refined than that of Goguryeo. Also characteristic of Baekje architecture is its use of curvilinear designs. Though no Baekje buildings are extant - in fact, no wooden structure of any of the Three Kingdoms now remains - it is possible to deduce from Horyuji temple in Japan, which Baekje architects and technicians helped to build, that Baekje's architecture came into full bloom after the introduction of Buddhism in 384. What remains in the building sites, patterned tiles and other relics, as well as the stone pagodas that have survived the ravages of time, testifies to the highly developed culture of Baekje.
The site of Mireuksa temple, the largest in Baekje, was excavated in 1980 at Iksan of Jeollabuk-do Province. The excavation disclosed many hitherto unknown facts about Baekje architecture. A stone pagoda at Mireuksa temple is one of two extant Baekje pagodas. It is also the largest as well as being the oldest of all Korean pagodas. Mireuksa temple had an unusual arrangement of three pagodas erected in a straight line going from east to west, each with a hall to its north. Each pagoda and hall appear to have been surrounded by covered corridors, giving the appearance of three separate temples of a style called "one Hall-one Pagoda." The pagoda at the center was found to have been made of wood, while the other two were made of stone. The sites of a large main hall and a middle gate were unearthed to the north and south of the wooden pagoda.
When the site of Jeongnimsa temple was excavated in 1982, which had also been the site of the other existing Baekje pagoda, the remains of a main hall and a lecture hall arranged on the main axis one behind the other were unearthed to the north of the pagoda. The remains of a middle gate, a main gate and a pond arranged on the main axis one in front of the other were also discovered to its south. It was found that the temple was surrounded by corridors from the middle gate to the lecture hall. This "one Pagoda" style was typical of Baekje, as the excavations of the temple site in Gunsu-ri and in Gumgangsa temple in Buyeo in 1964. The building sites of Gumgangsa temple, however, were arranged on the main axis going from east to west rather than from north to south.
Early Buddhism in Silla developed under the influence of Goguryeo. Some monks from Goguryeo came to Silla and preached among the people, making a few converts.
Silla was the last of the three kingdoms to develop into a full-fledged kingdom. Buddhist temples were built in Silla. One of the well known examples of Silla architecture is Cheomseongdae, said to be the first stone observatory in Asia. It was built during the reign of Queen Seondeok (632–646). The structure is known for its unique and elegant form.