Mughal architecture is the style of architecture which developed in the Mughal Empire during the 16th–18th centuries throughout the ever-changing extent of their empire in South Asia. It developed from the architectural styles of earlier Indo-Islamic architecture and from Iranian and Central Asian architectural traditions, particularly the Timurid architecture. It also further incorporated and syncretized influences from wider Indian architecture, especially during the reign of Akbar (r. 1556–1605). Mughal buildings have a uniform pattern of structure and character, including large bulbous domes, slender minarets at the corners, massive halls, large vaulted gateways, and delicate ornamentation. Examples of the style are found mainly in modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan.
The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526. During his five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. His grandson Akbar commissioned extensive construction projects, and Mughal architectural style developed significantly during his reign. Among his accomplishments were Agra Fort and the fort-city of Fatehpur Sikri, which includes the Buland Darwaza. Akbar's son Jahangir commissioned the Shalimar Gardens of Srinagar.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of Shah Jahan, who constructed the Taj Mahal, the Jama Masjid of Delhi, the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, and renovated the Lahore Fort. High-ranking officials also constructed major monuments, as with the example of the Wazir Khan Mosque. The last of the great Mughal patrons was Aurangzeb, who commissioned the Badshahi Mosque, Bibi Ka Maqbara, Moti Masjid, among others. The style continued into 18th century but went into a decline, although it influenced regional and later architectural traditions, notably the Indo-Saracenic architecture during colonial period.
Background Mughal emperors and elites consciously used architecture as a way to publicly display their presence and power. The extensive architectural patronage of the Mughals was made possible by their considerable wealth, which exceeded that of other contemporary Muslim empires like the Ottomans and Safavids. In the Indian subcontinent, more monuments survive from the Mughal period than any other period. Major monuments of this time include mosques, mausoleums, palaces, gardens, and fortresses. Many of North India's largest temples were also built by Hindu mansabdars in the Mughal Empire, even as temple destruction also intermittently punctured the landscape.
The Mughal dynasty's founder, Babur, was initially based in Kabul, present-day Afghanistan. After the expansion into the Indian subcontinent, the imperial capital was, depending on the period, in Agra and Delhi, (present-day India), or Lahore (present-day Pakistan), along with other sites that served for short periods. In several cases, Mughal emperors commissioned new imperial cities as their capitals, such as Fatehpur Sikri by Akbar and Shahjahanabad by Shah Jahan. These capitals contain some of the greatest displays of Mughal monumental architecture, but imperial patronage was also directed across various cities and rural sites throughout the empire.
Mughal architecture was derived from three main architectural traditions: the architecture of Islamic Persia and Central Asia, local Indo-Islamic architecture, and indigenous Hindu architecture. Because earlier Indo-Islamic architecture already borrowed from both Hindu and Islamic architectural styles, certain influences in Mughal architecture can be difficult to attribute to one source or the other. With regards to Hindu architecture, local Rajput palaces were likely a key influence.
Early Mughal architecture developed from existing Indo-Islamic architecture while following the model of Timurid architecture (based in Central Asia), due in part to the Timurid ancestry of Babur. By the late 16th century, a more distinctive Mughal tradition emerged based on the combination of these two sources.
Under the reign of Akbar (), the use of Hindu architectural elements was especially prolific, including in high-profile construction projects like Fatehpur Sikri. During his reign in particular, non-Muslims were present among the highest-ranking officials and were able to become patrons of architecture as well. The most notable example is Raja Man Singh, a Hindu amir who commissioned both Hindu temples and Muslim mosques and shrines.
Under Akbar's successors, there was a shift towards more typically Islamic architectural designs. During the reign of Shah Jahan (), a "classical" Mughal style was consolidated and remained essentially in use until the end of the Mughal period. A certain level of stylistic consistency was achieved throughout the empire at this period thanks to the role of a central department of architects, similar to the imperial architects that existed in the Ottoman Empire.
Characteristics
General
Mughal architecture is distinguished by an elegant style in which careful linear divisions of spaces and surfaces took priority over the more three-dimensional combination of elements that distinguished earlier Indo-Islamic architecture. The use of colour was also relatively restrained, with emphasis instead on finishing surfaces with high-quality, polished materials. Bulbous domes and ogive arches were among the most prominent recurring elements. In addition to domes and arches, the local tradition of trabeate construction also continued, especially in secular architecture, like palaces.
Another distinguishing characteristic was the use of red sandstone as a building material, along with white marble. This replaced the prominence of brick in earlier Indo-Islamic architecture, though construction materials still varied depending on the region. Sandstone is a very hard material, but local Indian stonemasons were skilled in carving it with intricate detail, which was another distinguishing feature of the Mughal style. White marble was initially used as a cladding to complement and finish the look of sandstone buildings, as in Tomb of Humayun, but later it was used on a grander scale to cover entire buildings, as in the Taj Mahal. Brick was sometimes still used for domes and arches, but in these cases it was usually faced with plaster or stone as a finish.
Decoration
Decorative motifs included geometric and floral designs, as well as elaborate inscriptions in Arabic, Persian, and even in local languages during the late Mughal period. Decoration was commonly executed in tile or stone.
Tilework was more commonly applied to the exterior of buildings and existed in two main types: cuerda seca and mosaic tilework. Cuerda seca tiles were decorated with coloured glazes separated by dark lines, while mosaic tilework consisted of single-coloured tile pieces that were cut and fitted together to create larger patterns.
Stonework was of high quality and marks one of the most sophisticated aspects of Mughal decoration. Carved stonework included ornately sculpted pillars and corbels, flat panels carved in low relief with depictions of flowers, and pierced marble screens known as jalis. Pietra dura, known as parchin kari in the Indian subcontinent, was the technique of decorating with inlaid stone. It developed in this region independently from the Italian technique that is widely known elsewhere.
Influences
Elements of earlier Indo-Islamic architecture that continued in Mughal architecture are the cusped multifoil arches, which appeared earlier in the architecture of Delhi and Gujarat sultanates, as well as the do-chala roof, a feature originating in Bengali architecture that was adopted in the architecture of the Bengal Sultanate.
Features of Persian or Central Asian (Timurid) influence were the iwan (a vaulted space open to one side), the use of domes, the pointed four-centred arch, the use of decorative tilework, and the chahar bagh type of garden, along with various other motifs and building layouts. In dome construction, Persian-style squinches were used in some cases, but in other cases the domes were supported by flat beams over the corners of the chamber.
Elements of Mughal architecture that demonstrate Hindu influences include the use of trabeate constructions, the use of corbel arches instead of arches with voussoirs, and the style of ornately carved pillars. Jharokhas (projecting balconies), chhatris (domed kiosks), and chhajjas (wide stone eaves) are also elements that were borrowed from local Hindu architecture and became very popular in Mughal architecture. Some elements, such as projecting balconies, had parallels in Islamic architecture elsewhere but their specific Mughal forms were of local inspiration.
Major building types
Large fortified citadels or palace complexes, such as the Agra Fort and the Red Fort in Delhi, were enclosed in massive walls reinforced by semi-circular towers and entered via monumental gateways. Inside, the classic Mughal palace was laid out with symmetrical gardens and various pavilions. Open pavilions with rows of cusped arches were a recurring feature. Rich decoration was used to embellish rooms and halls.
Gardens were a favourite concern of Mughal emperors, whether they were created as separate, dedicated garden sites or as the setting for pavilions and mausoleums within larger architectural complexes. They were laid out in a formal manner with terraces, precise divisions, and water features.
Mosques were relatively more restrained in their decoration but were built on a grand scale. The typical mosque layout in the classic Mughal era involved a large rectangular courtyard surrounded by an arcade on three sides and a prayer hall on one side. The prayer hall consisted of a wide vaulted hall fronted by an arcade of monumental arches, with the central archway consisting of a larger iwan rising above the others.
The most monumental and elaborate Mughal structures were royal mausoleums, deliberately designed to show off the power and sophistication of their patrons. The classic Mughal tomb was an octagonal or rectangular structure with a central dome and outer iwans, raised on a terraced platform.
Other public buildings and infrastructure works included roads, milestones (known as kos minar), caravanserais (inns for merchants and travelers), and bridges. These were more functional in nature and less decorative, though some caravanserais were embellished with elaborate gateways.
Monuments Babur The architectural patronage of Babur, the first Mughal emperor, is mainly known for its terraced gardens. These gardens, often established in palaces and citadels, were modeled on the Persian chahar bagh ("four gardens") type, in which gardens are geometrically divided into different plots, usually four equal parts. This type followed Timurid antecedents, though the use of water channels as linear dividers may have been a Mughal innovation. Babur himself was initially buried at Agra, but in 1644 his tomb was moved to one of his favourite gardens in Kabul, now known as the Gardens of Babur. Some of the architectures Babur created in the present-day India includes Aram Bagh in Agra, Lotus Garden in Dholpur and more.Research & Teaching Aptitude Paper-I
In religious architecture, Babur's mosques also followed the designs of earlier Timurid mosques, with a tall central entrance portal (pishtaq), a courtyard, and a prayer hall covered by a large central dome flanked by side aisles covered by smaller domes. An example of this is his mosque at Panipat.
Humayun
Akbar I
Agra Fort