This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the Indigenous languages of the Americas or Amerindian languages. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not correspond to these divisions.
North America
Glottolog 4.1 (2019) Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total). The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total).
North American languages families proposed in Glottolog 4.1
Families (42) Otomanguean (180) Arawakan (78) Uto-Aztecan (69) Algic (46) Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (45) Mayan (33) Chibchan (27) Salishan (25) Mixe-Zoque (19) Siouan (18) Eskimo–Aleut (12) Totonacan (12) Cochimi-Yuman (11) Iroquoian (11) Miwok-Costanoan (11) Kiowa-Tanoan (8) Muskogean (7) Pomoan (7) Chumashan (6) Wakashan (6) Caddoan (5) Misumalpan (5) Sahaptian (5) Xincan (5) Chinookan (4) Huavean (4) Maiduan (4) Yokutsan (4) Kalapuyan (3) Shastan (3) Tequistlatecan (3) Tsimshian (3) Chimakuan (2) Coosan (2) Haida (2) Jicaquean (2) Keresan (2) Lencan (2) Palaihnihan (2) Tarascan (2) Wintuan (2) Yuki-Wappo (2)
Isolates (31) Adai Alsea-Yaquina Atakapa Beothuk Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha Coahuilteco Comecrudan Cotoname Cuitlatec Esselen Guaicurian Karankawa Karok Klamath-Modoc Kutenai Maratino Molale Natchez Salinan Seri Siuslaw Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica Washo Yana Yuchi Zuni
Gallatin (1836)
An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.)
(Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in italics.)
Families Algonkin-Lenape (=Algonquian) Athapascas (=Athabaskan) Catawban (=Catawba + Woccons) Eskimaux (=Eskimoan) Iroquois (=Northern Iroquoian) Cherokees (=Southern Iroquoian) Muskogee (=Eastern Muskogean) Chahtas (=Western Muskogean) Sioux (=Siouan)
Languages Adaize (=Adai) Attacapas (=Atakapa) Salmon River (=Bella Coola) Black Feet (=Blackfoot) Pawnees (=Pawnee) Caddoes (=Caddo) Chinooks (=Chinookan) Chetimachas (=Chitimacha) Fall Indians (=Gros Ventre) Queen Charlotte's Island (=Haida)11. Straits of Fuca (=Makah) 12. Natches (=Natchez) 13. Wakash (=Nootka) 14. Salish (=Salishan) 15. Shoshonees (=Shoshone) 16. Atnahs (=Shuswap) 17. Kinai (=Tanaina) 18. Koulischen (=Tlingit) 19. Utchees (=Yuchi)
Gallatin (1848) Families
Algonquian languages Athabaskan languages Catawban languages Eskimoan languages Iroquoian languages (Northern) Iroquoian languages (Southern) Muskogean languages Siouan languages
Languages 1. Adai 2. Alsean 3. Apache 4. Arapaho 5. Atakapa 6. Caddoan, Northern 7. Caddoan, Southern 8. Cayuse-Molala 9. Chinookan 10. Chitimacha 11. Comanche 12. Haida 13. Kalapuyan 14. Kiowa 15. Klamath 16. Koasati-Alabama 17. Kootenai 18. Kutchin 19. Maricopa (Yuman) 20. Natchez 21. Palaihnihan 22. Plains Apache 23. Sahaptian 24. Salishan 25. Shasta 26. Shoshone 27. Tanaina 28. Tlingit 29. Tsimshian 30. Ute 31. Wakashan, Southern 32. Wichita 33. Yuchi
Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight" John Wesley Powell, an explorer who served as director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, published a classification of 58 "stocks" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent.
John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.
(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)
1. Adaizan 2. Algonquian 3. Athapascan 4. Attacapan (=Atakapa) 5. Beothukan (=Beothuk) 6. Caddoan 7. Chimakuan 8. Chimarikan (=Chimariko) 9. Chimmesyan (=Tsimshian) 10. Chinookan 11. Chitimachan (=Chitimacha) 12. Chumashan 13. Coahuiltecan 14. Copehan (=Wintuan) 15. Costanoan 16. Eskimauan (=Eskimoan) 17. Esselenian (=Esselen) 18. Iroquoian 19. Kalapooian (=Kalapuyan) 20. Karankawan (=Karankawa)21. Keresan 22. Kiowan (=Kiowa) 23. Kitunahan (=Kutenai) 24. Koluschan (=Tlingit) 25. Kulanapan (=Pomoan) 26. Kusan (=Coosan) 27. Lutuamian (=Klamath-Modoc) 28. Mariposan (=Yokutsan) 29. Moquelumnan (=Miwokan) 30. Muskhogean (=Muskogean) 31. Natchesan (=Natchez) 32. Palaihnihan 33. Piman (=Uto-Aztecan) 34. Pujunan (=Maiduan) 35. Quoratean (=Karok) 36. Salinan 37. Salishan 38. Sastean (=Shastan) 39. Shahaptian (=Sahaptian)40. Shoshonean (=Uto-Aztecan) 41. Siouan (=Siouan–Catawba) 42. Skittagetan (=Haida) 43. Takilman (=Takelma) 44. Tañoan (=Tanoan) 45. Timuquanan (=Timucua) 46. Tonikan (=Tunica) 47. Tonkawan (=Tonkawa) 48. Uchean (=Yuchi) 49. Waiilatpuan (=Cayuse & Molala) 50. Wakashan 51. Washoan (=Washo) 52. Weitspekan (=Yurok) 53. Wishoskan (=Wiyot) 54. Yakonan (=Siuslaw & Alsean) 55. Yanan 56. Yukian 57. Yuman 58. Zuñian (=Zuni)
Rivet (1924) Paul Rivet (1924) lists a total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of Tamaulipas, Mexico.
North American families Algonkin Beothuk Eskimo Hoka Iroquois (Irokwa) Kaddo Keres Kiowa Klamath Kutenai Muskhogi Na-Dene Penutia Sahaptin Salish Siou (Syu) Tano Timukua Chimakum Tunika Uto-Azten Waiilatpu Wakash Yuki Yuchi Zuñi
Central American families Amusgo Kuikatec Kuitlatek Lenka Maya Miskito-Sumo-Matagalpa Mixe-Zoke Mixtek Olive Otomi Paya Subtiaba Tarask (Michoacano) Totonak Chinantek Waїkuri Xanambre (Janambre) Xikake (Jicaque) Xinka (Jinca, Sinca) Zapotek
Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica Below is Edward Sapir's (1929) famous Encyclopædia Britannica classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a "lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo–Aleut, Algonkin–Wakashan, Na-Dene, Penutian, Hokan–Siouan, and Aztec–Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks that appear in Sapir's list below are present in the original article.)
"Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"
I. Eskimo–Aleut
II. Algonkin–Wakashan 1. Algonkin–Ritwan (1) Algonkin (2) Beothuk (?) (3) Ritwan (a) Wiyot (b) Yurok 2. Kootenay 3. Mosan (Wakashan–Salish) (1) Wakashan (Kwakiutl–Nootka) (2) Chimakuan (3) Salish
III. Nadene 1. Haida 2. Continental Nadene (1) Tlingit (2) Athabaskan
IV. Penutian 1. Californian Penutian (1) Miwok-Costanoan (2) Yokuts (3) Maidu (4) Wintun 2. Oregon Penutian (1) Takelma (2) Coast Oregon Penutian (a) Coos (b) Siuslaw (c) Yakonan (3) Kalapuya 3. Chinook 4. Tsimshian 5. Plateau Penutian (1) Sahaptin (2) Waiilatpuan (Molala–Cayuse) (3) Lutuami (Klamath-Modoc) 6. Mexican Penutian (1) Mixe–Zoque (2) HuaveV. Hokan–Siouan 1. Hokan–Coahuiltecan A. Hokan (1) Northern Hokan (a) Karok, Chimariko, Shasta–Achomawi (b) Yana (c) Pomo (2) Washo (3) Esselen–Yuman (a) Esselen (b) Yuman (4) Salinan–Seri (a) Salinan (b) Chumash (c) Seri (5) Tequistlatecan (Chontal) B. Subtiaba–Tlappanec C. Coahuiltecan (1) Tonkawa (2) Coahuilteco (a) Coahuilteco proper (b) Cotoname (c) Comecrudo (3) Karankawa 2. Yuki 3. Keres 4. Tunican (1) Tunica–Atakapa (2) Chitimacha 5. Iroquois (1) Iroquoian (2) Caddoan 6. Eastern group (1) Siouan–Yuchi (a) Siouan (b) Yuchi (2) Natchez–Muskogian (a) Natchez (b) Muskogian (c) Timucua (?)VI. Aztec–Tanoan 1. Uto-Aztekan (1) Nahuatl (2) Piman (3) Shoshonean 2. Tanoan–Kiowa (1) Tanoan (2) Kiowa 3. Zuñi (?)
Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964
The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.
American Arctic-Paleosiberian phylum Eskimo–Aleut Chukchi–Kamchatkan Na-Dene phylum Athapascan Tlingit Haida Macro-Algonquian phylum Algonquian Yurok Wiyot Muskogean Natchez Atakapa Chitimacha Tunica Tonkawa Macro-Siouan phylum Siouan Catawba Iroquoian Caddoan Yuchi Hokan phylum Yuman Seri Pomoan Palaihnihan Shastan Yanan Chimariko Washo Salinan Karok Chumashan Comecrudan Coahuiltecan Esselen Jicaque Tlapanecan Tequistlatecan 6. Penutian phylum Yokuts Maidu Wintun Miwok–Costanoan Klamath–Modoc Sahaptin–Nez Perce Cayuse Molale Coos Yakonan Takelma Kalapuya Chinookan Tsimshian Zuni Mixe–Zoque Mayan Chipaya–Uru Totonacan Huave 7. Aztec–Tanoan phylum Kiowa–Tanoan Uto-Aztecan 8. Keres 9. Yuki 10. Beothuk 11. Kutenai 12. Karankawa 13. Chimakuan 14. Salish 15. Wakashan 16. Timucua
Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan are included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.
Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book" Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split".
Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999) (preliminary)
Families Algic Algonquian Wiyot (> Ritwan?) Yurok (> Ritwan?) Na-Dene Eyak-Athabaskan Eyak Athabaskan Tlingit Caddoan (> Macro-Siouan?) Chimakuan Chinookan (> Penutian?) Chumashan [chúmash] Comecrudan Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?) Eskimo–Aleut Eskimoan Aleut = Unangan Iroquoian Kalapuyan [kalapúyan] Kiowa–Tanoan Maiduan Muskogean Palaihnihan (Achumawi–Atsugewi) Pomoan Sahaptian Salishan Shastan Siouan–Catawban Siouan Catawban Tsimshianic Utian Miwok Costanoan Utaztecan Numic = Plateau Tübatulabal = Kern Takic = Southern California Hopi = Pueblo Tepiman = Pimic Taracahitic Tubar Corachol Aztecan Wakashan Kwakiutlan Nootkan Wintuan (> Coast Penutian?) Yokutsan Yuman–Cochimi Yuman Cochimi
Isolates Adai Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?) Atakapa (> Tunican?) Beothuk (unclassifiable?) Cayuse Chimariko Chitimacha (> Tunican?) Coahuilteco Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo Esselen Haida Karankawa Karuk Keres Klamath-Modoc Kootenai Molala Natchez Salinan Siuslaw (> Coast Penutian?) Takelma Timucua Tonkawa Tunica (> Tunican?) Wappo (> Yuki–Wappo) Washo Yana Yuchi (> Siouan) Yuki (> Yuki–Wappo) Zuni
Stocks
Yuki–Wappo, supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997)
The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico is considered probable by many linguists: Penutian Tsimshianic Chinookan Takelma Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998) Maidun Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997) Alsea Coosan Siuslaw Wintuan Plateau Sahaptian Klamath Molala Cayuse ? (poor data) Yok-Utian ? Yana Yana
Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely: Macro-Siouan Iroquoian–Caddoan Iroquoian Caddoan Siouan–Yuchi Siouan–Catawban Yuchi
Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis Natchez–Muskogean