The Dakota language ( or ), also referred to as Dakhóta, is a Siouan language spoken by the Dakota people of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, commonly known in English as the Sioux. Dakota is closely related to and mutually intelligible with the Lakota language.
Morphology
Nouns Dakota, similar to many Native American languages, is a mainly polysynthetic language, meaning that different morphemes in the form of affixes can be combined to form a single word. Nouns in Dakota can be broken down into two classes, primitive and derivative. Primitive nouns are nouns whose origin cannot be deduced from any other word (for example or earth, or fire, and or father), while derivative nouns are nouns that are formed in various ways from words of other grammatical categories. Primitive nouns stand on their own and are separate from other words. Derivative nouns, on the other hand, are formed by the addition of affixes to words in other grammatical categories.
Verbs Verbs in Dakota can appropriate, through agglutination and synthesis, many of the pronominal, prepositional, and adverbial or modal affixes of the language. There are many verbal roots, all of which are only used once certain causative prefixes are added, forming participles. Like Spanish or French, Dakota verbs also have three persons, the first, the second, and the third. Person is indicated through the presence (first and second person) or lack (third person) of personal pronoun affixes. There are two forms of tense in the language, the aorist (as verbs, adjectives, and other nouns, sometimes called the indefinite) and the future. In order to express the future tense, the suffixes or are placed after the verb, much in contrast to expressing the aorist tense, which requires no marking, but is instead derived from the context of what is being said.
Verb types Source:
Abstract benefactive; (wa- + -kíči-) An action that is for someone else's benefit and is further generalized as a concept.
Wíkičihni "to hunt or hustle for someone (on their behalf)"
Abstract causative; (wa- + -yA) An action that causes something to change state or action and is generalized as a concept.
WapíȟyA "to boil things"
Abstract intransitive; (wa-) Does not specify an object and is further generalized as a concept.
WakáǧA "to make things, create"
Abstract possessive; (wa- + -ki; & wa- + hd-) Specifies that the action is upon one’s own, and is further generalized as a concept.
Wíkihni "to hunt or hustle for one’s self or one’s family" Wahdúžaža "to wash one’s own things"
Abstract transitive; (wa-) Requires an object, and is further generalized as a concept.
Awámanuŋ "to steal from someone" WíwaŋǧA "to ask someone questions, interrogate or interview somebody"
Auxiliary; Follows an unconjugated verb and modifies it.
Ší "to command someone, tell someone what to do (ex. waŋyág ší ’tell someone to look’)"
Benefactive; Dative 2; (-kíči-) An action that is for someone else’s benefit or on their behalf.
KíčičaǧA "to make something (specified) in someone’s place"
Causative; (-ye, -ya & -yaŋ) An action that causes something or someone to change state or action.
PiȟyÁ "to boil something (specified); to cause something to boil"
Dative 1; (-ki- & -khi-) An action that indicates an object or recipient.
KiyútA "to eat someone else’s" DudkhíyA "to dye or paint someone else's red"
Ditransitive; An action that requires two objects, whether the actor and another or two items.
Amánuŋ "to steal something (specified) from someone"
Intransitive; An action that doesn’t need an object.
InáȟmA / InáȟbA "to be hiding"
Possessive; (-ki-, & -hd-) An action that targets one's own.
NakíȟmA / NakíȟbA "to hide one’s own"
Reciprocal; (-kičhi- ± -pi) An action between two parties that is done in kind to one another.
Ókičhiyapi "to help one another"
Reflexive; (-ič’i- & -ihd-) An action done to or for one's self.
Óič’iyA "to help one’s self"
Stative; A verb describing a state of being.
Tháŋka "to be large, great in size or renown; to be a grown up"
Transitive; An action that requires an object or subject.
Yutháŋka "to make something bigger, enlarge, expand"
Affixes In the Dakota language, affixes are used to change the meaning of words by attaching to the root word. Affixes can be added to both nouns and verbs, and they come in the form of prefixes and suffixes.
Prefixes are added to the beginning of a word, infixes inside of the word, and suffixes are added to the end of a word. For example, the verb means "to tell a story" in Dakota. By adding the infixed "", the word becomes , which means "to tell someone". On the other hand, by adding the suffix "," the word becomes "", which can mean "a story, a narrative" or "they are all telling stories".
Dakota being an agglutinative language means that affixes are added to the root word without changing the form of the root word. This can result in long, complex words that can convey a lot of information in a single word. For example, the Dakota word , means "to cover up something for one; to pass by a matter, forgive, or cancel". This word is made up of the root word (meaning "to cover, knock down or take something down"), the suffix - meaning "to or for, (causative)", and the prefix meaning "upon" + + = .
Overall, affixes in the Dakota language play an important role in creating new words and adding nuances to the meaning of existing words. They allow speakers to express complex ideas in a concise and efficient manner.
Infixoids Infixoids are morphemes that can occur either as infixes, circumfixes, or transfixes depending on the word they are attached to. In the case of Dakota language, some affixes can function as both a prefix and an infix, depending on the specific instance of the word.
For example, the Dakota verb "" means "to ask for something". If you want to say "I ask for something from you", you add the affixes to indicate dative 1 case (to someone), and 1s-2s (I to you) resulting in "". However, the verb "to say something" uses the same affix in an infixed position, so if you want to say "she says to you", you would add the same affix as an infix instead, with 2sT resulting in "" ( + + ).
Similarly, the affix which can mean "you and I" (1d), and is shared with "we all, us all" (1p), can be found in both positions of prefix and infix, depending on the verb in use. The verb "to leave or pass by" in 1s (I leave), while in 1d (you and I leave). The same affix in the verb "to walk" is infixed as 1d .
This phenomenon of affixes functioning as both prefixes and infixes in Dakota language is an example of the complex morphological structure of the language, and it requires careful attention to the specific context and meaning of the word being used.
Pronoun infixoids
1s "I" 1sT "I, (target/status)" 1s2T "I to you" 1s3pT "I to them all" 2s "you" 2T "you, (target/status)" 2s1sT "you to me" 2s3pT "you to them all" 2s/p1pT "you/you all to us all" 1d "you and I; you and I, (target/status); 1p "we all (actors); us all, (target/status)" 1p2sT "we all to you"; 1p "we all to you all" 1d3pT "you and I to them all"; 1p3pT "we all to them all" 3T "they all, plural collective (target/status)"
Grammatical infixoids
Reflexive -ič’i- "to one's self" 1s -mič’i-, 2s -nič’i-, 1d/p -uŋkíč’i-.../pi Dative 1 -ki-¹ & -khi- "to someone, or to theirs" 1s -waki-, 2s -yaki-, 1d/p -uŋki-.../pi 1s -wakhi-, 2s -yakhi-, 1d/p -uŋkhi-.../pi Possessive -ki-² "to one’s own" 1s -waki-, 2s -yaki-, 1d/p -uŋki-.../pi Reciprocal -kičhi- "to each other" 1s3s -wečhi-, 2p -yečhi-...-pi, 1d/p -uŋkičhi-.../pi, 3p -kičhi-...-pi Dative 2, Benefactive -kiči- "for someone else, on their behalf" 1s -weči-, 2s -yeči-, 1d/p -uŋkiči-.../pi
Prefixes
Instrumental prefixes
Ba- indicates a cutting motion, such as sawing or cutting with a knife or saw 1s bawá-, 2s bayá-, 1d/p baúŋ-.../pi Bo- indicates impact by hitting or poking from a distance; 2. by impact via transportation; 3. by natural forces such as blowing wind, waves, lightning; 4. by blowing via mouth 1s bowá-, 2s boyá-, 1d/p boúŋ-.../pi Ka- indicates an action done by striking or hitting with a tool, such as a hammer or an axe; 2. by natural forces such as wind or water, an outer force, (creates impersonal verbs that refer to natural elements); 3. can diminish adverbs to mean "somewhat, a little" 1s waká-, 2s yaká-, 1d/p uŋká-.../pi Na- indicates an action of the foot or leg, such as kicking out, walking, standing; 2. of its own accord by an inside force, on its own, by itself; 3. automatically, such as by automation 1s nawá-, 2s nayá-, 1d/p uŋná-.../pi Pa- indicates an action done by pushing away from the actor, by pressure with the body or with a tool 1s wapá-, 2s yapá-, 1d/p uŋpá-.../pi Ya- indicates an action done by mouth, both literally and figuratively, such as yaȟtákA "biting," yawášte "blessing," yaónihaŋ "honoring 1s bda-, 2s da-, 1d/p uŋyá-.../pi Yu- indicates an action done by hand, by pulling towards the actor or manually; 2. general causation; 3. indicates use of scissors 1s bdu-, 2s du-, 1d/p uŋyú-.../pi
Possessive instrumental prefixes
Hd- indicates the possessive form of ka-, ya-, & yu- verbs, such as hdakčá "to comb one's own hair", hdawášte "to bless one's own", and hduwášte "to improve one's own" Ihd- indicates the reflexive form of ka-, ya-, & yu- verbs, such as ihdáčho "to judge one's self", ihdúžaža "to wash one's self" Kp- indicates the possessive form of pa- verbs, such as kpahí "to pick one’s own", 'or kpažáža "to wash or clean one's own" Ikp- indicates the reflexive form of pa- verbs, such as ikpáȟica "to wake oneself up", or ikpázo "to show oneself off"
Locatives
A- on, upon, over; 2. for a purpose; 3. in addition to E- to, at; denotes that the action is done at a place; of some verbs starting with "i," it makes a collective plural form: as, inážiŋ, "to stand", énažiŋ, "they all stand"; iyáyA, "to be gone", éyayA, "they all have gone" I- in regards to, on account of, because of; by, with a tool, changes active verbs into a tool object; makes ordinal numbers of cardinal numbers; prefixed to time nouns it means the following one O- in, into, inside; around, abouts, in a certain area; creates certain kinds of nouns; generalizes certain words
Abstract and indefinite object markers
Wa- the main indefinite object marker; can create nouns from verbs, give verbs a more general or abstract meaning such as "people" or "things." Wi- When Wa- comes before the vowel "i" it becomes wi- and forms instrument nouns; also the classifier for human women and terms related to the thípi. Wo- When Wa- comes before the vowel "o" it becomes wó and creates abstract notions such as wóinina "the virtue of stillness"; also when the prefix wa- contracts with the prefix yu- such as wóžaža "to do laundry," (wa- + yužáža).
Suffixes
-yA, -yAŋ causative suffix 1s -waye, 2s -yaye, 1p -uŋyapi/uŋyaŋpi -khiyA, khiyAŋ dative 1 causative -kiyA, kiyAŋ possessive causative -pi plural suffix, can often make verbs into nouns equivalent to -ing in English 1p -uŋ-...-pi, 2p -ya-...-pi, 3p ...-pi
Enclitic suffixes
-phiča to be possible, good for, to be doable, feasible -daŋ, -da, -na diminutive suffix, makes nouns small or beloved 3p -pidaŋ, -pida, -pina; such as hokšípidaŋ "little boys" -ȟčA, -ȟ very much, really, particularly; such as nínaȟče "very much so, it really is..." šni negative suffix, negates any verb it follows, such as wašté šni "not good"
Duplifixes