Crest factor is a parameter of a waveform, such as alternating current or sound, showing the ratio of largest value to the more typical value. More specifically, crest factor is the peak amplitude of the waveform divided by the root mean square (RMS) value of the waveform. The minimum possible crest factor is 1 or 1:1.
Crest factor indicates how extreme the peaks are in a waveform. Crest factor 1 indicates no peaks, such as direct current or a square wave. Higher crest factors indicate more pronounced peaks, for example sound waves tend to have high crest factors.
The peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) is the peak power (peak amplitude squared) divided by the average power (mean square or squared RMS). PAPR is the square of the crest factor.
Crest factor and PAPR are both dimensionless quantities. While the crest factor is defined as a positive real number, in commercial products it is also commonly stated as the ratio of two whole numbers, e.g., 2:1. The PAPR is most used in signal processing applications. As it is a power ratio, it is normally expressed in decibels (dB). When expressed in decibels, crest factor and PAPR are numerically equal, due to the way decibels are calculated for power ratios vs amplitude ratios.
The crest factor of the test signal is a fairly important issue in loudspeaker testing standards; in this context it is usually expressed in dB. JBL Speaker Power Requirements, which is applying the IEC standard 268-5, itself more recently renamed to 60268-5AES2-2012 standard, Annex B (Informative) Crest Factor, pp. 17-20 in the 2013-02-11 printing"Dr. Pro-Audio", Power handling, summarizes the various speaker standards
Examples This table provides values for some normalized waveforms. All peak magnitudes have been normalized to 1.
Wave type Waveform RMS value Crest factor PAPR (dB) DC 1 1 0.0 dB Sine wave 3.01 dB Full-wave rectified sine 3.01 dB Half-wave rectified sine 6.02 dB Triangle wave 4.77 dB Square wave 1 1 0 dB PWM signal V(t) ≥ 0.0 V dB QPSK 1 1 1.761 dB 8PSK 3.3 dB -DQPSK 3.0 dB OQPSK 3.3 dB 8VSB 6.5–8.1 dB 64QAM 3.7 dB -QAM 4.8 dB WCDMA downlink carrier 10.6 dB OFDM 4 ~12 dB GMSK 1 1 0 dB Gaussian noise Op Amp Noise Theory and Applications - 10.2.1 rms versus P-P NoiseChapter 1 First-Order Low-Pass Filtered Noise - "The standard deviation of a Gaussian noise voltage is the root-mean-square or rms value of the voltage." Noise: Frequently Asked Questions - "Noise theoretically has an unbounded distribution so that it should have an infinite crest factor"Telecommunications Measurements, Analysis, and Instrumentation, Kamilo Feher, section 7.2.3 Finite Crest Factor Noise dB Periodic chirp 3.01 dB
Notes: Crest factors specified for QPSK, QAM, WCDMA are typical factors needed for reliable communication, not the theoretical crest factors which can be larger.
Crest factor reduction
Many modulation techniques have been specifically designed to have constant envelope modulation, i.e., the minimum possible crest factor of 1:1.
In general, modulation techniques that have smaller crest factors usually transmit more bits per second than modulation techniques that have higher crest factors. This is because: any given linear amplifier has some "peak output power"—some maximum possible instantaneous peak amplitude it can support and still stay in the linear range; the average power of the signal is the peak output power divided by the crest factor; the number of bits per second transmitted (on average) is proportional to the average power transmitted (Shannon–Hartley theorem). Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a very promising modulation technique; perhaps its biggest problem is its high crest factor."Crest Factor Reduction of an OFDM/WiMAX Network"."Low Crest Factor Modulation Techniques for Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)" . Many crest factor reduction techniques (CFR) have been proposed for OFDM.R. Neil Braithwaite. "Crest Factor Reduction for OFDM Using Selective Subcarrier Degradation" .K. T. Wong, B. Wang & J.-C. Chen, "OFDM PAPR Reduction by Switching Null Subcarriers & Data-Subcarriers," Electronics Letters, vol. 47, no. 1, pp. 62-63 January, 2011 .S.C. Thompson, "Constant Envelope OFDM Phase Modulation," PhD Dissertation, UC San Diego, 2005. The reduction in crest factor results in a system that can either transmit more bits per second with the same hardware, or transmit the same bits per second with lower-power hardware (and therefore lower electricity costsNick Wells. "DVB-T2 in relation to the DVB-x2 Family of Standards" quote: "techniques which can reduce the PAPR, ... could result in a significant saving in electricity costs." and less expensive hardware), or both. Over the years, numerous model-driven approaches have been proposed to reduce the PAPR in communication systems. In recent years, there has been a growing interest in exploring data-driven models for PAPR reduction as part of ongoing research in end-to-end communication networks. These data-driven models offer innovative solutions and new avenues of exploration to address the challenges posed by high PAPR effectively. By leveraging data-driven techniques, researchers aim to enhance the performance and efficiency of communication networks by optimizing power utilization.
Crest factor reduction methods Various methods for crest factor reduction exist, such as peak windowing, noise shaping, pulse injection and peak cancellation.
Applications Electrical engineering — for describing the quality of an AC power waveform Vibration analysis — for estimating the amount of impact wear in a bearing Radio and audio electronics — for estimating the headroom required in a signal chainCrest factor analysis for complex signal processing PAPR simulation for 64QAM Music has a widely varying crest factor. Typical values for a processed mix are around 4–8 (which corresponds to of headroom, usually involving audio level compression), and 8–10 for an unprocessed recording Crest factor definition — AES Pro Audio ReferenceGain Structure — Setting the System Levels , Mackie Mixer TipsSetting sound system level controls: The most expensive system set up wrong never performs as well as an inexpensive system set up correctly. Physiology — for analysing the sound of snoringPalatal snoring identified by acoustic crest factor analysis
See also Clipping (signal processing) Form factor (electronics)
References
General
External links Definition of peak-to-average ratio – ATIS (Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions) Telecom Glossary 2K Definition of crest factor – ATIS (Alliance for Telecommunications Industry Solutions) Telecom Glossary 2K Peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) of OFDM systems - tutorial