Dignāga (also known as Diṅnāga, ) was an Indian Buddhist philosopher and logician. He is credited as one of the Buddhist founders of Indian logic (hetu vidyā) and atomism. Dignāga's work laid the groundwork for the development of deductive logic in India and created the first system of Buddhist logic and epistemology (pramāṇa).Zheng Wei-hong Dignāga and Dharmakīrti: Two Summits of Indian Buddhist Logic. Research Institute of Chinese Classics; Fudan University; Shanghai, China
According to Georges B. Dreyfus, his philosophical school brought about an Indian "epistemological turn" and became the "standard formulation of Buddhist logic and epistemology in India and Tibet."Dreyfus, Georges B. J. Recognizing Reality: Dharmakirti's Philosophy and its Tibetan Interpretations, Suny, 1997, pp. 15-16. Dignāga's thought influenced later Buddhist philosophers like Dharmakīrti and also Hindu thinkers of the Nyāya school. Dignāga's epistemology accepted only "perception" (pratyaksa) and "inference" (anumāṇa) as valid instruments of knowledge and introduced the widely influential theory of "exclusion" (apoha) to explain linguistic meaning.Arnold, Dan. The Philosophical Works and Influence of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti, http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195393521/obo-9780195393521-0085.xml His work on language, inferential reasoning and perception were also widely influential among later Indian philosophers.Dunne, John. "Dignaga" in Buswell (ed.) ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BUDDHISM. Volume One A-L According to Richard P. Hayes "some familiarity with Dinnaga's arguments and conclusions is indispensable for anyone who wishes to understand the historical development of Indian thought."Hayes (1982), p. ix.
Life Little is known about Dignāga's life. According to Taranatha, Dignāga was born to a Brahmin family near the city of Kanchi in around 470 or 480 CE and was ordained into the Vātsīputrīya order at an early age by a monk named Nāgadatta. Xuanzang states that Dignāga was active for a period in the "Andhra country". At some point in his life, Dignāga became associated with the monastery of Nalanda.
Philosophy
Dignāga's mature philosophy is expounded in his magnum opus, the Pramāṇa-samuccaya. In chapter one, Dignāga explains his epistemology which holds that there are only two 'instruments of knowledge' or 'valid cognitions' (pramāṇa); "perception" or "sensation" (pratyakṣa) and "inference" or "reasoning" (anumāna). In chapter one, Dignāga writes:
Sensation and reasoning are the only two means of acquiring knowledge, because two attributes are knowable; there is no knowable object other than the peculiar and the general attribute. I shall show that sensation has the peculiar attribute as its subject matter, while reasoning has the general attribute as its subject matter.Hayes (1982), p 133.
Perception is a non-conceptual knowing of particulars which is bound by causality, while inference is reasonable, linguistic and conceptual.Tom Tillemans (2011), Dharmakirti, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy This conservative epistemic theory was in contrast to the Nyāya school who accepted other means of knowledge such as upamāna (comparison and analogy).
Pratyakṣa Pratyakṣa is a kind of awareness that acquires information about particulars, and is immediately present to one of the senses. This is the topic of the first chapter of the Pramāṇa-samuccaya.Hayes (1982), p 132. For Dignāga, perception is pre-verbal, pre-conceptual and unstructured sense data. In chapter two of the Pramāṇa-samuccaya he writes:
Sensation is devoid of structure. That cognition in which there is no structure is sensation. What kind of thing is this so-called structure? Attaching a name, a universal and so forth.Hayes (1982), p 134.
According to Dignāga our mind always takes raw sense data or particulars and interprets them or groups them together in more complex ways, compares them to past experiences, gives them names to classify them based on general attributes (samanyalaksana) and so forth. This process he terms kalpana (arranging, structuring).Hayes (1982), p 135. This cognitive process is already different from sensation, which is a simple cognition based only on the immediately present. Thus pratyakṣa is only awareness of particular sense data such as a patch of green color and the sensation of hardness, never awareness of a macroscopic object such an apple which is always a higher level synthesis.Hayes (1982), p 138. For Dignāga, sensation is also inerrant, it cannot "stray" because it is the most basic and simple phenomenon of experience or as he puts it:
"it is impossible too for the object of awareness itself to be errant, for errancy is only the content of misinterpretation by the mind."Hayes (1982), p 139.
Also, for Dignāga, pratyakṣa is mostly phenomenalist and is not dependent on the existence of an external world. It is also inexpressible and private.Hayes (1982), p 143.
Anumāṇa Anumāṇa (inference or reasoning) for Dignāga is a type of cognition which is only aware of general attributes, and is constructed out of simpler sensations. Inference can also be communicated through linguistic conventions.
A central issue which concerned Dignāga was the interpretation of signs (linga) or the evidence (hetu) which led one to an inference about states of affairs; such as how smoke can lead one to infer that there is a fire.Hayes (1982), p 1. This topic of svārthānumāna (reasoning, literally "inference for oneself") is the subject of chapter two of the Pramāṇa-samuccaya while the topic of the third chapter is about demonstration (parārthānumāna, literally "inference for others"), that is, how one communicates one's inferences through proper argument.Hayes (1982), p 132-33.
According to Richard Hayes, in Dignāga's system, to obtain knowledge that a property (the "inferable property", sadhya) is inherent in a "subject of inference" (paksa) it must be derived through an inferential sign (linga). For this to occur, the following must be true:Hayes (1982), p 146, 153.
The inferential sign must be a property of the subject of the inference. That is, there exists in the subject of inference a property, which is different from the inferable property and which is furthermore evident to the person drawing the inference; this second property may serve as an inferential sign in case it has two further characteristics. The inferential sign must be known to occur in at least one locus, other than the subject of inference, in which the inferable property occurs. The inferential sign must not be known to occur in any other loci in which the inferable property is absent.
Richard Hayes interprets these criteria as overly strict and this is because he sees Dignāga's system as one of rational skepticism. Dignāga's epistemology, argues Hayes, is a way to express and practice the traditional Buddhist injunction to not become attached to views and opinions.Hayes (1982), p 146, 167. According to Hayes, for Dignāga, the role of logic is:
to counter dogmatism and prejudice. As a weapon in the battle against prejudice that rages in every mind that seeks wisdom—in minds of the vast majority of people who do not seek wisdom, prejudice simply takes full control without a contest-there is nothing as powerful as the kind of reason that lies at the heart of Dignaga's system of logic. For it should be clear that very few of our judgments in ordinary life pass the standards set by the three characteristics of legitimate' evidence. Taken in its strictest interpretation, none of the judgments of any but a fully omniscient being passes. And, since there is no evidence that there exist any fully omniscient beings, the best available working hypothesis is that no one's thinking is immune from errors that require revision in the face of newly discovered realities.Hayes (1982), p 167.
Apohavada and language Dignāga considered the interpretation of conventional and symbolic signs such as the words and sentences of human language to be no more than special or conventional instances of the general principles of inference or anumana. He takes up several issues relating to language and its relationship to inference in the fifth chapter of his Pramāṇa-samuccaya.
During Dignāga's time, the orthodox Indian Nyāya school and also Hindu Sanskrit grammarians (such as Bhartṛhari) had discussed issues of epistemology and language respectively, but their theories generally accepted the concept of universals which was rejected by most Buddhist philosophers. Influenced by the work of these thinkers as well as by Buddhist philosophers of the Sautrantika school who rejected Hindu theories of universals in favor of nominalism (prajñapti), Dignāga developed his own Buddhist theory of language and meaning based on the concept of "apoha" (exclusion).Hayes (1982), p 27-28. Hattori Masaaki explains the doctrine thus:
a word indicates an object merely through the exclusion of other objects (anyapoha, -vyavrtti). For example, the word "cow" simply means that the object is not a non-cow. As such, a word cannot denote anything real, whether it be an individual (vyakti), a universal (jati), or any other thing. The apprehension of an object by means of the exclusion of other objects is nothing but an inference.Hayes (1982), p 26.
Works As noted by Hayes, the difficulty in studying the highly terse works of Dignāga is considerable, because none of them have survived in the original Sanskrit and the Tibetan and Chinese translations which do survive show signs of having been done by translators who were not completely certain of the meaning of the work.Hayes, (1982), p. 6. This difficulty has also led scholars to read Dignāga through the lens of later authors such as Dharmakīrti and their Indian and Tibetan interpreters as well as their Hindu Nyāya opponents. Because of this tendency in scholarship, ideas which are actually innovations of Dharmakīrti and later authors have often been associated with Dignāga by scholars such as Fyodor Shcherbatskoy and S. Mookerjee, even though these thinkers often differ.Hayes, (1982), p. 15.
Pramāṇa-samuccaya Dignāga's magnum opus, the Compendium of Epistemology (Derge Kanjur no. 4203) and its auto-commentary (Pramāṇasamuccayavṛtti), examined perception, language and inferential reasoning. It presents perception as a bare cognition, devoid of conceptualization and sees language as useful fictions created through a process of exclusion (apoha).
The work has six chapters. Chapter one is on perception (pratyakṣa), chapter two on inference for one's self (svārthānumāna), chapter three on inference for others (parārthānumāna), chapter four discusses reason and examples (hētu-dṛṣṭāna), chapter five deals with apoha and chapter six deals with analogy (jāti).
This work exists in two Tibetan translations. The Sanskrit text was initially thought to be lost by modern scholars, but then a manuscript of the commentary by Jinendrabuddhi was discovered. Modern scholars are currently working to extract and reconstruct the Sanskrit text of the Pramāṇasamuccaya from the commentary in which it is embedded.Eli Franco (2006). A New Era in the Study of Buddhist Philosophy, 34(3), 221–227. doi:10.1007/s10781-005-5019-3
Kumarila Bhatta, in his Shlokavartika, responds to Dignāga's criticism of Mimamsa Sutra 1.1.4.
List of other known works His other surviving works on reasoning and epistemology include:Eltschinger, "Dignaga" in 2019, Brill's Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. II, "Lives," ed. Jonathan Silk (in chief), Richard Bowring, Vincent Eltschinger and Michael Radich. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 179-185Hattori, Masaaki. 1968. Dignāga, On Perception: Being the Pratyakṣapariccheda of Dignāga's Pramāṇasamuccaya from the Sanskrit Fragments and the Tibetan Versions, Translated and Annotated, pp. 6-11 HOS, Harvard Oriental Series 47. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Pamio, Roberta. A Comparative Study Between Buddhism and Nyaya, 2021