Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus (; Latin: ; 258 – May 311) was Roman emperor from 305 to 311. He participated in the system of government later known as the Tetrarchy, first acting as caesar under Emperor Diocletian. In this period Galerius obtained victory warring against the Persian Sasanian Empire, defeating Narseh at the battle of Satala in 298 and possibly sacking the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon in 299. He also campaigned across the Danube against the Carpi, defeating them in 297 and 300. Galerius was promoted to augustus upon the abdication of Diocletian in 305, but had to contend with multiple usurpers as the Tetrarchic system broke down. Although he was a staunch opponent of Christianity, he ended the Diocletianic Persecution by issuing the Edict of Serdica in 311.
Early life Galerius was born in the Danube provinces, either near Serdica"Maximianus Galerius in Dacia haud longe a Serdica natus", Eutropii Breviarum IX. 22. or at the place where he later built his palace named after his mother – Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad), in the province later known as Dacia Ripensis."ortus Dacia Ripensi ibique sepultus est; quem locum Romulianam ex vocabulo Romulae matris appellarat", Epitome de Caesaribus 40.16. Under this palace, an older villa has been found that is sometimes interpreted as Galerius's birthplace. His mother, Romula, had left Roman Dacia (today Romania) and settled in New Dacia south of the Danube because of the Carpians' attacks., chapter 9 He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herdsman, where he was nicknamed "Armentarius", herdsman (). His original cognomen was "Maximinus", but he changed it to "Maximianus" after becoming Caesar.
He served with distinction as a soldier under Emperors Aurelian and Probus. Galerius is stated to have divorced an earlier wife upon marrying Diocletian's daughter Valeria (later known as Galeria Valeria), just as Constantius Chlorus is said to have divorced Helena to marry Maximian's daughter Theodora. This claim is stated by writers Aurelius Victor, Jerome, and Eutropius, as well as in the anonymous Epitome de Caesaribus, and the Historia Augusta and probably derives from a common, now lost, source. The factuality of this claim is disputed by some historians, who believe it might derive from attempts by Constantine to establish that his mother Helena was married to his father, and not just a concubine. The date of the marriages of Galerius and Chlorus to the emperors daughters are also disputed, with several ancient sources claiming that the marriages both took place in 293, but modern historians such as Julia Hillner and Máirín MacCarron have noted that there exists panegyrics from as early as 289 which seem to imply that Chlorus had already become a kinsman of Maximian. Hillner and MacCarron argue therefore that the two men had become son-in-laws of the emperors before they were elevated to the rank of Caesar in 293.
In 293, at the establishment of the Tetrarchy, Galerius was designated Caesar along with Constantius Chlorus, and was entrusted with the care of the Illyrian provinces. After a few years campaigning against Sarmatians and Goths on the Danube, he received command of the legions on the eastern imperial limits. Soon after his appointment, Galerius was dispatched to Egypt to fight the rebellious cities Busiris and Coptos.Rees, Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, p. 14, citing William Leadbetter, "Galerius and the Revolt of the Thebaid, 293/4," Antichthon 34 (2000) 82–94.
War with Persia
Invasion, counterinvasion In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur I, who had been passed over for the Sasanid succession, came into power in Persia. Narseh probably moved to eliminate Bahram III, a young man installed by a noble named Vahunam in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293. In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts, but within Persia, he was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors, erasing their names from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike reigns of Ardashir (r. 226–241) and Shapur (r. 241–272), who had sacked Roman Antioch and captured Emperor Valerian.
In 295 or 296, Narseh declared war on Rome. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, retaking the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. He occupied the lands there until the following year.Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.11. The historian Ammianus Marcellinus, circa 320–395, is the only source detailing the initial invasion of Armenia. Southern (1999, 149) dates the invasion to 295; Barnes (1982, 17, 293) mentions an earlier, unsuccessful invasion by Narseh based on the fact that the title Persici Maximi was given to all four emperors; Odahl (2004, 59) concurs with Barnes and suggests that Saracen princes in the Syrian desert collaborated with Narseh's invasion. Narseh then moved south into Roman Mesopotamia, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius, then commander of the eastern forces, in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Raqqa, Syria). Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle, but presented himself soon afterwards at Antioch, issuing an official version of events which placed all the blame for the affair upon Galerius. In Antioch, Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor. David Stone Potter reads a symbolic message in the display: the loss at Carrhae was due not to the failings of the empire's soldiers, but to the failings of their commander, and Galerius's failures would not be accepted. Another scholar, Roger Rees, suggests that Galerius's position at the head of the caravan was merely the conventional organization of an imperial progression, designed to show a Caesar's deference to his Augustus.
Galerius's army was reinforced probably in the spring of 298 by new contingents collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. Diocletian may or may not have been present to assist the campaign.Lactantius (DMP 9.6) derides Diocletian for his absence from the front; Southern (1999, 151, 335–336), on the basis of a dating of the African campaigns one year earlier than that given by Barnes, places him at Galerius's southern flank. Southern sees the Persian campaign progressing along the lines of Marcus Aurelius' (r. 161–180) earlier, unsuccessful Parthian campaign, which also had an emperor manning the southern flank. Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius's force, putting himself at a disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but not to Sasanid cavalry. Local aid gave Galerius the advantage of surprise over the Persian forces, and he defeated Narseh in two successive battles. During the second encounter, the Battle of Satala in 298, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. Narseh's wife would live out the remainder of the war in Daphne, a suburb of Antioch, serving as a constant reminder to the Persians of the Roman victory.
Galerius advanced into Media and Adiabene, winning continuous victories, most prominently near Theodosiopolis (Erzurum), and securing Nisibis (Nusaybin) before 1 October 298. The historian Timothy Barnes argues that he moved down the Tigris, taking Ctesiphon. Barnes's main argument for this is that Eusebius's biography of Constantine mentions that the later emperor had seen the ruins of Babylon according to this work. Patricia Southern also argues that he took Ctesiphon based on the uncertainty of the location where the seizure of Narseh's wife and harem took place. However, no source ever specifically claims that Ctesiphon was sacked and many other historians argue Diocletian prevented him from moving further into Sasanian territory.
Peace negotiations Narseh had previously sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wife and children, but Galerius had dismissed this ambassador, reminding him of how Shapur had treated Valerian. In any case, the Romans treated Narseh's captured family well, perhaps seeking to evoke comparisons to Alexander and his beneficent conduct towards the family of Darius III. Peace negotiations began in the spring of 299, with both Diocletian and Galerius presiding. Their magister memoriae (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms.
The conditions of the Peace of Nisibis were heavy: Persia would give up territory to Rome, making the Tigris the boundary between the two empires. Further terms specified that Armenia was returned to Roman domination with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene, and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region.The acceptance of these terms by the Persians also meant that Syriac culture would earn long-term influence in the region on both sides of the Tigris. With the heavily Christian Syriac peoples so near their border, Armenia would also become susceptible to Christian influence in later years, leading to its eventual conversion under Tiridates. Potter, The Roman Empire at Bay, p. 293. Under the terms of the peace, Tiridates would regain both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim, and Rome would secure a wide zone of cultural influence in the region. Because the empire was able to sustain such constant warfare on so many fronts, it has been taken as a sign of the essential efficacy of the Diocletianic system and the goodwill of the army towards the tetrarchic enterprise.
Rule as Augustus
After the abdication of Diocletian in 305 and the elevation of Constantius I and Galerius to the rank of Augustus, two new Caesars were required to take their place. Seeking to enhance his authority, Galerius gave the positions to men who were very much his creatures. Maximinus Daza, a nephew of Galerius with little experience or formal education, was assigned the command of Egypt and Syria. Valerius Severus, Galerius's comrade in arms, was sent to govern Italy and Africa from a base in Mediolanum. Officially Severus reported to the western emperor, but he was absolutely devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, whose power was thus established over three-quarters of the empire.
Constantius died at Eboracum in 306 and the legions elevated his son Constantine to the position of Augustus. Galerius only discovered this when he received a letter from Constantine, who apologized for the informal nature of his promotion but nonetheless treated it as valid. The first emotions of Galerius were surprise, disappointment, and rage, and as he could seldom restrain his passions, he threatened to burn both the letter and the messenger.Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62.Odahl, 79–80. Calmer consideration made him reluctant to open a civil war: Constantine had the devotion of Constantius' legions, and the young man's character had impressed Galerius during an encounter at Nicomedia. Galerius decided on a compromise position, allowing Constantine to rule the provinces beyond the Alps but giving him only the title of Caesar and the fourth rank among the Tetrarchs. Severus received the title of Augustus.