Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, tidal, hydro, biomass, and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market. The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by the increasing costs and environmental impact of fossil fuels, which has led to a proposed phase out of fossil fuel use.
Copper plays an important role in these renewable energy systems,Will the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?, Renewable Energy World; Jan 15, 2016; https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/01/will-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-be-paved-in-copper.html García-Olivares, Antonio, Joaquim Ballabrera-Poy, Emili García-Ladona, and Antonio Turiel. A global renewable mix with proven technologies and common materials, Energy Policy, 41 (2012): 561–57, http://imedea.uib-csic.es/master/cambioglobal/Modulo_I_cod101601/Ballabrera_Diciembre_2011/Articulos/Garcia-Olivares.2011.pdfCopper at the core of renewable energies; European Copper Institute; European Copper Institute; 18 pages; http://www.eurocopper.org/files/presskit/press_kit_copper_in_renewables_final_29_10_2008.pdf Copper in energy systems; Copper Development Association Inc.; http://www.copper.org/environment/green/energy.html mainly for cables and pipes. Copper usage averages up to five times more in renewable energy systems than in traditional power generation, such as fossil fuel and nuclear power plants.The Rise Of Solar: A Unique Opportunity For Copper; Solar Industry Magazine; April 2017; Zolaika Strong; https://issues.solarindustrymag.com/article/rise-solar-unique-opportunity-copper Since copper is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor among engineering metals (second only to silver),Pops, Horace, 1995. Physical Metallurgy of Electrical Conductors, in Nonferrous Wire Handbook, Volume 3: Principles and Practice, The Wire Association International electrical systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts.
When choosing electrical conductors, facility planners and engineers factor capital investment costs of materials against operational savings due to their electrical energy efficiencies over their useful lives, plus maintenance costs. Copper often fares well in these calculations. A factor called "copper usage intensity," is a measure of the quantity of copper necessary to install one megawatt of new power-generating capacity.
When planning for a new renewable power facility, engineers and product specifiers seek to avoid supply shortages of selected materials. According to the United States Geological Survey, in-ground copper reserves have increased more than 700% since 1950, from almost 100 million tonnes to 720 million tonnes in 2017, despite the fact that world refined usage has more than tripled in the last 50 years.The World Copper Factbook, 2017; http://www.icsg.org/index.php/component/jdownloads/finish/170/2462 Copper resources are estimated to exceed 5 Billion tonnes.Copper Mineral Commodity Summary (USGS, 2017) https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/copper/ mcs-2017-coppe.pdfGlobal Mineral Resource Assessment (USGS, 2014) https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2014/3004/pdf/fs2014-3004.pdf
Bolstering the supply from copper extraction is the more than 30 percent of copper installed from 2007 to 2017 that came from recycled sources.Long-Term Availability of Copper; International Copper Association; http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/ICA-long-term-availability-201802-A4-HR.pdf Its recycling rate is higher than any other metal.Will the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?, Renewable Energy World; Jan 15, 2016; by Zolaikha Strong; https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/01/will-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-be-paved-in-copper.html
Overview The majority of copper usage, worldwide, is for electrical wiring, including the coils of generators and motors.
Copper plays a larger role in renewable energy generation than in conventional thermal power plants in terms of tonnage of copper per unit of installed power.Integrated life-cycle assessment of electricity-supply scenarios confirms global environmental benefit of low-carbon technologies; Edgar G. Hertwich, Thomas Gibon, Evert A. Bouman, Anders Arvesen, Sangwon Suh, Garvin A. Heath, Joseph D. Bergesen, Andrea Ramirez, Mabel I. Vega, and Lei Shi; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA; May 19, 2015. 112 (20) 6277-6282; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1312753111 The copper usage intensity of renewable energy systems is four to six times higher than in fossil fuel or nuclear plants. So for example, while conventional power requires approximately 1 tonne of copper per installed megawatt (MW), renewable technologies such as wind and solar require four to six times more copper per installed MW. This is because copper is spread over much larger land areas, particularly in solar and wind energy power plants.Winds of Trade Toward Copper; Energy & Infrastructure, http://www.energyandinfrastructure.com/sections/columns1/469-winds-of-trade-toward-copper Power and grounding cables must run far to connect components that are widely dispersed, including to energy storage systems and to the main electrical grid.Current and Projected Wind and Solar Renewable Electric Generating Capacity and Resulting Copper Demand; BBF Associates and Konrad J.A. Kundig, July 20, 2011; http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Projected-wind-solar-copper-demand-1.pdf
Wind and solar photovoltaic energy systems have the highest copper content of all renewable energy technologies. A single wind farm can contain between 2000 and 7000 tons of copper. A photovoltaic solar power plant contains approximately 5.5 tons of copper per megawatt of power generation. A single 660-kW turbine is estimated to contain some 800 pounds (350 kg) of copper.Growing Renewable Energy Needs More Copper, Windpower Engineering, November 21, 2012; https://www.windpowerengineering.com/business-news-projects/uncategorized/growing-renewable-energy-needs-more-copper/
The total amount of copper used in renewable-based and distributed electricity generation in 2011 was estimated to be 272 kilotonnes (kt). Cumulative copper use through 2011 was estimated to be 1,071 kt.
+Copper usage in renewable energy generationInstalled power in 2011REN 21 2012 reportCumulative installed power to 2011Copper use in 2011Copper content assessment of solar thermal electric power plants (2010), Presentation by Protermosolar <http://www.protermosolar.com> for the European Copper Institute; Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; Maximization of use of copper in photovoltaics. Presentation by Generalia Group to ECI, 2012; Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; Wind Generator Technology, by Eclareon S.L., Madrid, May 2012; http://www.eclareon.com; Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; Cumulative copper use to 2011Gigawatts (GW) Gigawatts (GW) Kilotons (kt) Kilotons (kt)Photovoltaics 30 70 150 350 Solar thermal electricity 0.46 1.76 2 7 Wind 40 238 120 714 Total for all three technologies 272 1071
Copper conductors are used in major electrical renewable energy components, such as turbines, generators, transformers, inverters, electrical cables, power electronics, and information cable. Copper usage is approximately the same in turbines/generators, transformers/inverters, and cables. Much less copper is used in power electronics.
Solar thermal heating and cooling energy systems rely on copper for their thermal energy efficiency benefits. Copper is also used as a special corrosion-resistant material in renewable energy systems in wet, humid, and saline corrosive environments.
Copper is a sustainable material that is 100% recyclable and has a higher recycling rate than any other metal. At the end of the useful life of equipment, its copper can be recycled with no loss of its beneficial properties.
Solar photovoltaic power generation There is eleven to forty times more copper per unit of generation in photovoltaic systems than in conventional fossil fuel plants.Renewables Are as Green as You'd Expect; Scientific American; October 8, 2014; https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/renewables-are-as-green-as-you-d-expect/; citing, Integrated life-cycle assessment of electricity-supply scenarios confirms global environmental benefit of low-carbon technologies; by Edgar G. Hertwich et al.; Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA; May 19, 2015. 112 (20) 6277-6282; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1312753111 The usage of copper in photovoltaic systems averages around 4–5 tonnes per MWWill the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?, Renewable Energy World; Jan 15, 2016; https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/01/will-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-be-paved-in-copper.html or higher if conductive ribbon strips that connect individual PV cells are considered.
Copper is used in: small wires that interconnect photovoltaic modules earthing grids in electrode earth pegs, horizontal plates, naked cables, and wires DC cables that connect photovoltaic modules to inverters low-voltage AC cables that connect inverters to metering systems and protection cabinets high-voltage AC cables communication cables inverters/power electronics ribbons transformer windings.
Copper used in photovoltaic systems in 2011 was estimated to be 150 kt. Cumulative copper usage in photovoltaic systems through 2011 was estimated to be 350 kt.
Photovoltaic system configurations
Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are highly scalable, ranging from small rooftop systems to large photovoltaic power station with capacities of hundreds of megawatts. In residential systems, copper intensity appears to be linearly scalable with the capacity of the electrical generation system.Current and projected wind and solar renewable electric generating capacity and resulting copper demand; Copper Development Association Sustainable Electrical Energy Program; July 20, 2011, by BFF Associates and Konrad J.A. Kundig; http://copperalliance.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Projected-wind-solar-copper-demand-1.pdf Residential and community-based systems generally range in capacity from 10 kW to 1 MW.
PV cells are grouped together in solar modules. These modules are connected to panels and then into PV arrays. In grid-connected photovoltaic power system, arrays can form sub-fields from which electricity is collected and transported towards the grid connection.
Copper solar cables connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields (field cable). Whether a system is connected to the grid or not, electricity collected from the PV cells needs to be converted from DC to AC and stepped up in voltage. This is done by solar inverters which contain copper windings, as well as with copper-containing power electronics.
Solar cells
The photovoltaic industry uses several different semiconducting materials for the production of solar cells and often groups them into first and second generation technologies, while the third generation includes a number of emerging technologies that are still in the research and development phase. Solar cells typically convert 20% of incident sunlight into electricity, allowing the generation of 100–150 kWh per square meter of panel per year.The Emerging Electrical Markets for Copper, Bloomsbury Minerals Economics Ltd., July 6, 2010; Independent research study available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert;