Laurencia is a genus of red algae that grows in temperate and tropical shore areas, in littoral to sublittoral habitats, at depths up to .
Description
Laurencia species have a thallus that is erect or decumbent with distichous, whorled or radial branch arrangement.
Taxonomy and Nomenclature The genus name of Laurencia is in honour of Louis Jean de La Laurencie (1768-1829), who was a French Naval officer, Director of the University of Limoges and also a friend of the author, Jean Vincent Félix Lamouroux.
The genus was circumscribed by Jean Vincent Félix Lamouroux in Ann. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. vol.20 on page 130 in 1813. It included an initial description of eight species which then subsequently underwent taxonomic revisions. The genus belongs to order Ceramiales reported to have 137 species, with a rich body of knowledge spanning for more than 50 years of research.
Laurencia belongs to the family Rhodomelaceae which is considered to be one of the largest marine red algae family, estimated to have 125 genera and 700 species all over the world. In Laurenciae, a tribe consisting of eight genera, have a taxonomic group called "Laurencia complex" or Laurencia sensu lato which includes six of eight genera, Chondrophycus, Laurencia, Laurenciella, Osmundea, Palisada, and Yuzurua.
Morphology Laurencia is a small to medium-sized red algae which may appear to be iridescent with thalli reaching up to 40 cm. Thalli can be branching, which can either be bilateral or spread in all directions. Its appendages can be rhizoidal or discoidal in appearance on stoloniferous holdfasts. Branch shape appears to be flat or cylindrical in morphology. Branchlets may be slightly rigid with a shape that may be blunt, truncate or claviform.
Laurencia has shown high diversity as a genus, with species having distinct features that can easily be determined within the Laurencia complex. Molecular studies using rbcL (RuBisCO, Ribulose-1,5-Bisphosphate Carboxylase Oxygenase, Large chain) have uncovered evidences which divided the Laurencia complex, identifying the genus Laurenciella, which shares similar morphology with Laurencia but has a different rbcL sequence.
Distribution Laurencia can be found all over the world, in particular in tropical and subtropical regions with warmer waters. Its habitats range from tide pools, reef flats, mud flats, and a variety of hard substrates (e.g. rocks, corals), within intertidal and subtidal zones up to 65 m. It is also described as "turf-forming" wherein it can cover a majority of hard substrate in some areas.
In Myanmar, it can be found growing together with some species of Cladophora, Chaetomorpha, Dictyota, Gelidium, Ceramium, Caloglossa, Catenella, Polysiphonia, Acanthophora, and Bostrychia.
Ecology Laurencia has numerous ecological roles, serving as refuge for different marine organisms in areas where they grow abundantly, forming forests. They are also hosts of various mircoorganisms and parasitic algae, known as Janczewskia. As producers, they are also fed on by some grazers such as crabs, queen conch, and sea hares despite its chemical deterrent.
The growth of Laurencia is significantly affected by changes in nutrient availability and temperature. The effects of pollution in Laurencia are somewhat inconsistent showing its adaptability in Indian Ocean but markedly showed a decrease in biomass in polluted areas in the Mediterranean. Space within the environment is also a necessity for Laurencia survival. In field trials, Laurencia tends to inhibit coral larvae dispersal resulting to higher mortality when the algae is present.
Life History Laurencia grows throughout the year, with spermatangial individuals appearing from early August to late September while cystocarpic ones appear from mid-August to late October. From July to October, mature tetrasporangial plants appear. Gametophytic individuals are dioecious in nature, typically developed on the branchlets, but can be present in the main branch as well.
Male gametophytes contain spermatangia on trichoblast while female gametophytes contain carpogonia, representing the haploid phase. Two diploid phases occur in Laurencia: one with carpogonia and carpospore and the other, with tetrasporangia. Therefore, Laurencia undergoes three phases in its life cycle: one haploid phase and two diploid phases, consistent to the Polysiphonia triphasic life history.
Cultivation and Exploitation A growing interest in the cultivation of Laurencia brongniartii has emerged due to its potential to be a newfound source for antibiotics. The common method is indoor tank culture, utilizing an excised apical tip from a thalli sample. Initial trials have confirmed its viability for culture providing opportunities for personnel with little to no experience in algae cultivation. The cost of production is relatively low, with maintenance costs at its core. Small-scale operations may be profitable in maximizing algae production, however more studies are needed to evaluate these conditions.
Chemical Composition Laurencia species are known to have several natural products exhibiting numerous biological activities such as chemical defense against grazers, anti-fouling chemical affecting Perna perna attachment, and anti-fouling activities. In addition, Laurencia is known to be an abundant source of halogenated metabolites, including a variety of terpenes (e.g. sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, and C15 acetogenins).
In Vietnam, L. snackeyi may be a potential species to evaluate new chemical races, similar to L. nipponica seeing how these may indicate similarities in morphology but differences in chemical content subject to geographical distribution.
Utilization and Management A total of 1047 secondary metabolites have been extracted from Laurencia and Aplysia species since 2015. The diverse chemical composition of Laurencia has been subject to numerous research mainly attributed to both environmental and genetic factors. For years, humans have utilized Laurencia as food, medicinal products, fertilizers, and from recent research, an abundant source of pharmacological significance. The commercialization of the species may require further research in order to optimize culture conditions and eventually, harvest greater yield and develop a more systematic cultivation system.
Species AlgaeBase, a database with detailed information on species of Laurencia, includes 137 taxonomically accepted species , and differentiates these from a further ~375 entries of uncertain taxonomic status; it further delineates homotypic or heterotypic synonyms.
Commonly observed species of Laurencia include the shallow subtidal Laurencia nidifica (Hawaii), Laurencia pacifica (California), and Laurencia thyrsifera (New Zealand). Species seen in the British Isles include Laurencia hybrida, Laurencia obtusa, Laurencia osmunda, Laurencia pinnatifida, Laurencia pyramidalis, and Laurencia truncata.
The World Register of Marine Species lists the following species as accepted:Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. (2018). AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway (taxonomic information republished from AlgaeBase with permission of M.D. Guiry). Laurencia J.V.Lamouroux, 1813. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=143914 on 2018-11-01
Laurencia aguilar-rosasorum J.N.Norris, 2014 Laurencia aldingensis Saito & Womersley, 1974 Laurencia alsidioides P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan, 1865 (species inquirenda) Laurencia arbuscula Sonder, 1845 Laurencia batracopus (Bory de Saint-Vincent) Greville, 1830 Laurencia boryi De Notaris, 1842 Laurencia botrychioides Harvey, 1855 Laurencia botryocarpa Shperk, 1869 Laurencia botryoides (C.Agardh) Gaillon, 1828 Laurencia brachyclados Pilger, 1920 Laurencia brasiliana G.Martens, 1871 Laurencia brongniartii J.Agardh, 1841 Laurencia caduciramulosa Masuda & Kawaguchi, 1997 Laurencia californica (Kützing) Kützing, 1865 Laurencia calliclada Masuda, 1997 Laurencia calliptera Kützing, 1865 Laurencia canaliculata J.Agardh Laurencia caraibica P.C.Silva, 1972 Laurencia caspica A.D.Zinova & Zaberzhinskaya, 1967 Laurencia catarinensis Cordeiro-Marino & Fujii, 1985 Laurencia cervicornis Harvey, 1853 Laurencia chauvinii Bory de Saint-Vincent Laurencia chilensis De Toni, Forti & M.A.Howe, 1920 Laurencia chinensis C.K.Tseng, 1943 Laurencia chondrioides Børgesen, 1918 Laurencia cladonioides Kützing Laurencia clarionensis Setchell & Gardner, 1937 Laurencia clavata Sonder, 1853 Laurencia clavifera Suhr Laurencia claviformis Børgesen, 1924 Laurencia coelenterata D.L.Ballantine & Aponte, 1995 Laurencia complanata (Suhr) Kützing, 1849 Laurencia composita Yamada, 1931 Laurencia condaoensis Pham Hoàng Hô Laurencia congesta Taylor, 1945 Laurencia coronopus J.Agardh, 1852 Laurencia corymbifera Kützing Laurencia corymbosa J.Agardh, 1852 Laurencia crassifrons P.L.Crouan & H.M.Crouan Laurencia crustiformans K.J.McDermid, 1989 Laurencia cryptoclada Kützing, 1866 Laurencia cyanosperma (Delile) Gaillon, 1828 Laurencia cyanosperma Delile ex J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 Laurencia cylindrica (Kützing) Kützing Laurencia cymosa Kützing, 1865 Laurencia decidua E.Y.Dawson, 1954 Laurencia decumbens Kützing, 1863 Laurencia dendroidea J.Agardh, 1852 Laurencia densissima Setchell & N.L.Gardner, 1937 Laurencia depauperata Zanardini Laurencia distichophylla J.Agardh, 1852 Laurencia elata (C.Agardh) J.D.Hooker & Harvey, 1847 Laurencia epiphylla F.Boisset & J.C.Lino, 1998 Laurencia ericoides Kützing Laurencia fasciculata (Turner) Greville, 1830 Laurencia fastigiata Montagne, 1846 Laurencia fenicalli J.N.Norris, 2014 Laurencia filiformis (C.Agardh) Montagne, 1845 Laurencia filiformis f. decussata A.B.Cribb Laurencia flagelliformis J.Agardh Laurencia flexuosa Kützing, 1849 Laurencia foldatsii N.Rodríguez Rios, 1981 Laurencia forsteri (Mertens ex Turner) Greville, 1830 Laurencia galtsoffii M.A.Howe, 1934 Laurencia gardneri Hollenberg, 1943 Laurencia glomerata (Kützing) Kützing, 1849 Laurencia gracilis J.D.Hooker & Harvey, 1849 Laurencia griseaviolacea M.J.Wynne, 2017 Laurencia hamata Yamada, 1932 Laurencia hancockii E.Y.Dawson, 1944 Laurencia heteroclada Harvey, 1855 Laurencia hongkongensis C.K.Tseng, C.F.Chang, E.Z.Xia & B.M.Xia, 1980 Laurencia humilis Setchell & N.L.Gardner, 1930 Laurencia indica Hauck, 1888 Laurencia indica var. nidifica Hauck, 1888 Laurencia intercalaris K.W.Nam, 1994 Laurencia intricata J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 Laurencia iriei J.N.Norris Laurencia irieii J.N.Norris Laurencia japonensis T.Abe & Masuda, 1998 Laurencia johnstonii Setchell & Gardner, 1924 Laurencia lageniformis Masuda & Suzuki, 1997 Laurencia lajolla E.Y.Dawson, 1958 Laurencia laurahuertana Mateo-Cid, Mendoza-González, Senties & Diaz-Larrea, 2014 Laurencia laxa (R.Brown ex Turner) Gaillon, 1828 Laurencia ligulata E.Y.Dawson, 1963 Laurencia lutea J.V.Lamouroux Laurencia mariannensis Yamada, 1931 Laurencia masonii Setchell & N.L.Gardner, 1930 Laurencia maxineae E.Y.Dawson, 1944 Laurencia mcdermidiae I.A.Abbott, 1996 Laurencia mediocris Setchell & N.L.Gardner, 1937 Laurencia melanothrix (Bory) Kützing Laurencia mexicana Kützing Laurencia microcladia Kützing, 1865 Laurencia minuscula Schnetter, 1976 Laurencia minuta H.Vandermeulen, Garbary & Guiry, 1990 Laurencia minuta subsp. scammaccae G.Furnari & Cormaci, 1990 Laurencia moretonensis A.B.Cribb, 1958 Laurencia multiflora Kützing, 1865 Laurencia nana (C.Agardh) Greville, 1830 Laurencia nangii Masuda, 1997 Laurencia nanhaiensis L.Ding, B.Huang, B.M.Xia & C.K.Tseng, 2007 Laurencia natalensis Kylin, 1938 Laurencia nidifica J.Agardh, 1852 Laurencia nidifica var. tenuior Sonder Laurencia nipponica Yamada, 1931 Laurencia nuda Suhr, 1840 Laurencia obtusa (Huds.) J.V.Lamouroux, 1813 - type species Laurencia obtusa var. compacta A.B.Cribb, 1958 Laurencia obtusa var. densa Yamada Laurencia obtusa var. divaricata Yamada, 1931