The term Roman empress usually refers to the consorts of the Roman emperors, the rulers of the Roman Empire. The duties, power and influence of empresses varied depending on the time period, contemporary politics and the personalities of their husband and themselves. Empresses were typically highly regarded and respected, and many wielded great influence over imperial affairs. Several empresses served as regents on behalf of their husbands or sons and a handful ruled as empresses regnant, governing in their own right without a husband.
Given that there were sometimes more than one concurrent Roman emperor, there were also sometimes two or more concurrent Roman empresses. For most of the period from 286 to 480, the Roman Empire, though remaining a single polity, was administratively divided into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. Through most of this period, the separated imperial courts had their own lines of succession, and as a result their own sequences of concurrent Roman empresses. The western empire fell in the late 5th century, its final empress being the wife of Emperor Julius Nepos. The eastern empire, often referred to as the 'Byzantine Empire' by modern historians, endured for almost another millennium until its fall through the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The final empress of the east, and final Roman empress overall, was Maria of Trebizond, wife of Emperor John VIII Palaiologos.
Though the constitutional power of empresses was never defined, it was generally accepted that their coronation, performed after that of their husbands, granted them some imperial power. Often, their primary duties were to oversee the organization of ceremonies at the imperial court as well as to partake in imperial and religious affairs. Although governmental power was most often vested only in the emperor, empresses could gain significant authority as regents for young children or when their husbands were absent. Though they were bound by the wishes and temperaments of their husbands, empress consorts could at times also effectively become influential co-regents. In some cases, emperors reinforced their legitimacy through marrying the daughter of a previous emperor. In such cases, empresses sometimes stressed their dynastic legitimacy, greater than that of their husbands, to achieve great influence. Several influential consorts, such as Theodora, wife of Justinian I, and Euphrosyne, wife of Alexios III, held their own courts. Theodora and Euphrosyne, during their husbands' reigns, established a parallel court alongside the imperial court—a separate palace with their own staff, royal attendants, and imperial guard, with their own imperial seal. State affairs were reported to them, and decrees issued by them carried the same weight as those of the emperor. Additionally, empresses, Irene of Montferrat, wife of emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos, and Anna of Savoy, wife of emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos and mother of emperor John V Palaiologos, left Constantinople for Thessalonica and established their own courts, ruling independently in that province. Irene did so following a disagreement with her husband over succession, while Anna, after losing in the Second Civil War (1341–1347), establishing her own court in Thessalonica and acting independently.
Titles
There was no single official term for the position of "empress" in Ancient Rome.
Common titles
The Latin title augusta (Greek: αὐγούστα, augoústa), the female form of augustus, was usually given to Roman consorts. Insofar as augustus is understood as meaning "emperor", then a given woman could not become "empress" until being named augusta. However, not all consorts were given the title by their husbands. The title was sometimes given to other female members of the family, so "empress" and augusta are not always treated as synonyms. The Greek title basilissa (βασίλισσα), the female form of basileus, was a common title for Byzantine empresses. Empress regnant Irene sometimes adopted the male title basileus. The title despoina (δέσποινα), the female form of despotes, was also a common title for Byzantine empresses.
Noncommon titles
The honorific title mater castrorum ("mother of the castra") was later expanded to mater castrorum et senatus et patriae ("mother of the castra, senate and fatherland"), the female form of pater patriae ("father of the fatherland"), and was granted to some empresses in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. The title caesarissa (Greek: καισάρισσα, kaisarissa), the female form of caesar, was used for Ino Anastasia, etc. Meaning the wife of a caesar, it was originally the second-ranking female title in the Roman Empire after the augusta. The Latin title imperatrix, the feminine form of imperator, was used for Pulcheria, etc. It seems to have rarely been used for Roman empresses. The title autokratorissa (αυτοκρατόρισσα), the female form of autokrator, was used for Anna of Savoy, etc. Only a few empresses had this title. Empresses regnant Zoe and Theodora sometimes adopted the male title autokrator. The title sebaste, the feminine form of sebastos, was used for Maria Skleraina, etc. It was the Greek translation of augusta and ranked as a quasi-empress.
Principate (27 BC – AD 284)
Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68)
PortraitNameTenureLife details & notesEmperor (spouse)RefLivia Drusilla16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14()30 January 59 BC – AD 29(aged 87) Daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus; married Tiberius Claudius Nero in 43 BC and then Octavian on 17 January 38 BC. Known as Julia Augusta after his death; deified by Claudius on 17 January AD 42.Octavian Augustus(27 BC – AD 14)Julia Augusta(widow)September AD 14 – AD 29(15 years, as augusta) Orestilla AD 37 (very briefly)Second wife of Caligula; forced to marry him immediately after her marriage to Gaius Calpurnius Piso. After the divorce they were both exiled for alleged adultery. Probably the shortest-reigning empress.Caligula(37–41)Lollia Paulina AD 38 (a few months)Daughter of Marcus Lollius, originally married to Publius Memmius Regulus. Forced to commit suicide.Milonia CaesoniaSummer 39 – 24 January 41(about 1 year and a half)Born on 3 June of an unknown date, married to another man before becoming Caligula's mistress. Murdered alongside Caligula and their daughter Julia Drusilla.Julia Drusilla (?)(sister)Posthumously named augusta in AD 38R. B. Hoffsten considered Drusilla to have also become Augusta, because, after her death, she received all the honors that Livia had received.Antonia Minor(mother)Posthumously named augusta in AD 4131 January 36 BC – 1 May 37 AD(aged 72) Mother of Claudius; daughter of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor.Claudius(41–54)Valeria Messalina24 January 41 – AD 48(7 years)Daughter of Marcus Valerius Messalla. Executed after having an affair with Gaius Silius; suffered damnatio memoriae.Agrippina the YoungerJulia Agrippina1 January 49 – 13 October 54()6 November 15 – 23 March 59(aged 43) Daughter of Germanicus Julius Caesar, sister of Caligula, and mother of Nero, named augusta in AD 50. Murdered on the orders of Nero.Claudia Octavia13 October 54 – AD 62(7 years and a few months)39/40 AD – 9 June 62(aged 22–23) Daughter of Claudius and Valeria Messalina. Exiled and later executed.Nero(54–68)Poppaea SabinaAD 62 – AD 65(3 years)30/32 AD – early Summer 65(aged 33–35) Daughter of Titus Ollius; married Rufrius Crispinus 50, then the future emperor Otho in 58. Named augusta shortly after Claudia's birth in January 63, posthumously deified.Claudia(daughter)Posthumously named augusta in AD 63Only daughter of Nero and Sabina; was born on 21 January 63 and died on May of the same year.Statilia Messalinaearly 66 – 9 June 68(2 years) 35 – after 68 Daughter of Titus Statilius Taurus (consul 44), married consul Marcus Julius Vestinus Atticus in AD 63/64. Married Nero after the forced suicide of her husband.
Year of the Four Emperors (69) PortraitNameTenureLife details & notesEmperorRefSextilia(mother)69(as augusta)Mother of Vitellius.Vitellius(69)Galeria Fundana19 April – 20 December 69()Born on 3 January of an unknown date. Daughter of a pretor; possibly related to Publius Galerius Trachalus.
Flavian dynasty (81–96) PortraitNameTenureLife details & notesEmperorRefFlavia Domitilla(daughter)Posthumously named augusta by AD 80Only daughter of Vespasian and Domitilla the Elder, mother of Saint DomitillaVespasian(69–79)Julia Flavia(daughter)79 – 91(as augusta)Daughter of Titus.Titus(79–81)Domitia Longina14 September 81 – 18 September 96()11 February 50/55 – c. 126(aged approx. 70–76) Daughter of general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, first married to senator Lucius Aelius Aelianus. Named augusta after her marriage to Domitian. Survived her husband's assassination and died during the reign of Hadrian.Domitian(81–96)
Nerva–Antonine dynasty (98–192) All empresses of this period received the title augusta. PortraitNameTenureLife details & notesEmperorRefPompeia Plotina28 January 98 – 11 August 117(19 years, 6 months and 14 days) 70 (?) – c. 123(aged approx. 53) Daughter of Lucius Pompeius, named augusta around 105, posthumously deified. She was interested in Epicurean philosophical school. May have been involved in the appointment of Hadrian as successor.Trajan(98–117)Ulpia Marciana(sister) 105 – 114(about 9 years, as augusta)15/30 August 48 – 29 August 122(aged approx. 74) Sister of Trajan. She was given the title of augusta, but apparently did not immediately accept itSalonia Matidia(niece)29 August 112 – 119(7 years, as augusta)4 July 68 – 23 December 119(aged 51) Daughter of Ulpia Marciana and praetor Gaius Salonius Matidius Patruinus, in practice adopted daughter of Trajan. Great grand-mother of Marcus AureliusVibia Sabina11 August 117 – c. 137(c. 20 years)c. 85 – 136/137(aged approx. 52) Daughter of senator Lucius Vibius Sabinus, married Hadrian around 100, named augusta around 119, posthumously deified.Hadrian(117–138)Faustina the ElderAnnia Galeria Faustina10 July 138 – late October 140(2 years and 3 months) 97 – late October 140(aged approx. 43) Daughter of Marcus Annius Verus the Elder, married Antoninus around 120, named augusta in 138, posthumously deifiedAntoninus Pius(138–161)Faustina the YoungerAnnia Galeria Faustina7 March 161 – 175(14 years) 130 – 176(aged approx. 46) Daughter of Antoninus Pius, betrothed to Lucius Verus on 25 February 138, married Marcus Aurelius on 13 May (?) 145. Named augusta on 1 December 147 and mater castrorum (mother of the castra) in 174, posthumously deified.Marcus Aurelius(161–180)LucillaAnnia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla163 (?) – 169(6 years)7 March 149 – 181/182(aged 32–33) Daughter of Marcus Aurelius, betrothed to Lucius Verus in 161, named augusta shortly after the marriage. Exiled to Capri and executed by Commodus.Lucius Verus(161–169)Bruttia Crispina178 – 191/2(3–4 years)Daughter of Gaius Bruttius Praesens (consul 153), named augusta after her marriage with Commodus, sometime before 3 August 178. Exiled to Capri for alleged adultery and executed soon after; suffered damnatio memoriae.Commodus(180–192)
Year of the Five Emperors (193) All empresses of this period received the title augusta. PortraitNameTenureLife details & notesEmperorRefFlavia Titiana1 January – 28 March 193()Daughter of Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus. Her fate is unknown, but she probably was spared alongside her childrenPertinax(193)Manlia Scantilla28 March – 1 June 193()Named augusta alongside her daughter.Didius Julianus(193)Didia Clara(daughter)AD 193(briefly as augusta)Survived the death of Didius Julianus but her fate is unknown.
Severan dynasty (193–227) All empresses of this period were named augusta on or shortly after their marriage. PortraitNameTenureLife details & notesEmperorRefJulia Domna9 April 193 – 4 February 211()October/December 170 – April 217(aged approx. 47)