Water supply and sanitation in Israel are intricately linked to the historical development of Israel, because rain falls only in the winter, and largely in the northern part of the country. Irrigation and water engineering are considered vital to the country's economic survival and growth. Large-scale projects to desalinate seawater, direct water from rivers and reservoirs in the north, make optimal use of groundwater, and reclaim flood overflow and sewage have been undertaken. Among them is the National Water Carrier, carrying water from the country's biggest freshwater lake, the Sea of Galilee, to the northern part of the Negev desert through channels, pipes and tunnels.Sachar, Howard M., "A history of Israel: from the rise of Zionism to our time", Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 3rd ed., (2007), pp. 518-520 Israel's water demand today outstrips available conventional water resources. Thus, in an average year, Israel relies for about half of its water supply from unconventional water resources, including reclaimed water and desalination. A particularly long drought in 1998–2002 had prompted the government to promote large-scale seawater desalination. In 2022, 86% of the country's drinkable water was produced through desalination of saltwater and brackish water.
As stated by Lifshitz, the director of the Israel Water Authority, in August 2025, the water authority issued a warning regarding a significant drought caused by record-high temperatures, diminished water resources, and the desiccation of northern streams, including the Banias Stream.
Natural water resources The main natural water resources of Israel are:
Mediterranean Sea The by far largest part of drinkable water is being produced nowadays by desalination of seawater obtained from the Mediterranean Sea.
Water from the Jordan River basin
The Upper Jordan River flows south into the freshwater lake known as the Sea of Galilee, which provides the largest freshwater storage capacity along the Jordan River. The Sea of Galilee drains into the Lower Jordan River, which winds further south through the Jordan Valley to its terminus in the Dead Sea. A tributary of the Jordan River south of the lake is the Yarmouk River.
Groundwater
The main aquifers, or groundwater basins, are the Mountain Aquifer and the Coastal Aquifer, with smaller, regional aquifers in the Galilee and the Negev. The Mountain Aquifer consists of three basins: The Western Aquifer, in Israel called the Yarkon-Taninim Aquifer,Rivers of Discord—International Water Disputes in the Middle East, pp 11-12. Greg Shapland, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 1997 is the largest one, with an annual safe yield of 362 million cubic metres (mcm), based on average annual estimate, (of which 40 mcm are brackish). Eighty percent of the recharge area of this basin is located within the West Bank, whereas 80% of the storage area is located within Israeli borders. Israel utilises the aquifers of this basin by means of 300 deep groundwater wells to the west of the Green Line, as well as by deep wells within the West Bank boundary. Palestinians use it via wells and springs. The North-Eastern Aquifer, in Israel called the "Gilboa-Bet She'an Aquifer" or "Schechem-Gilboa Aquifer", has an annual safe yield of 145 mcm (of which 70 mcm are brackish). Almost 100% of its water comes from precipitation falling within the West Bank area, but then flows underground in a northerly direction into the Bisan (Bet She'an) and Jezreel valley. The Eastern Aquifer, whose waters empty into the Lower Jordan River and lay entirely within the West Bank, has an annual safe yield of 172 mcm (of which 70–80 mcm are brackish). This aquifer is mainly drained by springs. The Coastal Aquifer runs beneath the Israeli coastal plain, with Gaza downstream at the end of the basin.
History The history of the development of water supply and sanitation in modern Israel can be divided into distinct phases, beginning with the unilateral development of conventional water resources. This was followed by a period that emphasized the use of reclaimed water, the signing of an agreement to share water resources with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority, and the development of seawater desalination.
Development of conventional water resources (1937–70)
Because the coastal plain had few water resources, Theodor Herzl already envisioned the transfer of water from the Jordan River to the coast for irrigation and drinking water supply. In 1937 the national water company Mekorot was created, more than a decade before the creation of the state of Israel. Among its achievements was the Shiloach Pipeline along the Burma Road to Jerusalem built during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and a first pipeline to the Negev in 1955. Between 1953 and 1955 the United States Special Representative for Water in the Middle East, Eric Johnston, had negotiated the Jordan Valley Unified Water Plan to jointly develop the water resources of the Jordan River Basin between Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan. The Johnston Plan was rejected by the Arab League, but Israel nevertheless abided by its water allocation under the plan. Mekorot began a Rain Enhancement program in 1961, increasing rainfall by 13–18%. A Brackish Water Pipeline to divert brackish ground water from the Sea of Galilee to the Lower Jordan was completed in 1965. The main water resources project at the time, however, was the transfer of water from the Sea of Galilee to the coast through the National Water Carrier in 1965. As a reaction to the construction of the pipeline, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan tried to divert the headwaters of the Jordan River. This was one of the events that increased tensions leading to the Six-Day War of 1967 during which Israel captured the West Bank and the Golan Heights.
Water reclamation (1970s and 80s)
In 1969, the Shafdan wastewater treatment plant south of Tel Aviv was completed to treat approximately 130 million cubic meters of wastewater per year for reuse in agriculture. However, wastewater from other cities and towns remained largely untreated. In 1970 there was a cholera outbreak because of illegal irrigation of lettuce with untreated wastewater. This gave rise to major investments in wastewater treatment under the National Sewerage Plan, which emphasized the reuse of treated wastewater. In 1984 the Kishon wastewater treatment plant was completed in Northern Israel. It provides 20 million cubic meters of treated wastewater per year for agricultural use in the fertile Jezreel Valley, maximizing distribution potential during high-demand periods.
Signing of water sharing agreements (1990s)
The 1995 Interim Agreement as part of the Oslo Peace Process provided certain quantities of water to the Palestinians, but prevents them from drilling any new wells in the Mountain Aquifer. The surface water of the Jordan River remains disputed with Syria, Lebanon and the Palestinians. Only with Jordan was Israel able to reach an agreement on the sharing of water resources under the terms of the two countries’ 1994 peace agreement Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty.
Seawater desalination (2000s) In 1997, the first reverse osmosis desalination plant in Israel opened in Eilat. In 2002, under the impact of drought, the Government approved the construction of large seawater desalination plants along the Mediterranean coast. These installations would supply 305 million m3/yr of desalinated water by the year 2010 and 500 million m³/yr by 2015. By mid-2008 two of the new plants with a capacity of 130 million m3/yr were in operation. In parallel to the desalination program the cabinet also decided to promote water savings activities that could reduce household water use by at least 10 percent. In 2012, the Ashkelon Desalination Plant was converting 15,000 to 16,000 cubic meters of seawater to fresh water every hour, supplying 15 percent of Israel's annual water supply.
In July 2007 Water Commissioner Uri Shani warned about a decline in rainfall, exacerbating Israel's water crisis. "The drop in water supply derives from atmospheric contamination, which affects cloud composition and causes a drop in rainfall levels. Every year we record less water entering Lake Kinneret in the winter. Another factor in the drop in water supply is contamination of the coastal aquifer, which reduces the amount of water that can be pumped out.""Water Authority chief warns of possible shortage in 2008." Haaretz. July 2, 2007.
In 2007 Mekorot inaugurated its advanced Central Filtration Plant at the company's Eshkol facility. Built at a cost of more than $100 million, the sophisticated plant has annual filtering capacity in excess of 500 million cubic meters per year. It is the largest plant of its type in Israel and one of the largest in the world. In 2008 Mekorot lay a fifth pipeline to Jerusalem to double the quantity of water and provide 150 million cubic meters annually, including desalinated water.Mekorot. "Message from the Chairman of the Board, Eli Ronen." In March 2008 National Infrastructures Minister Benjamin Ben-Eliezer and Water Authority head Uri Shani began to explore options for new wastewater treatment plants and reservoirs. Another alternative considered was more expensive but less land-intensive membrane bioreactors."Government mulling plan to upgrade Dan Region's sewage system." Haaretz. April 08, 2008. In 2006 the Dan Regional Wastewater Board was criticized for plans to incinerate sludge to replace the practice of dumping it into the sea. Critics said the sludge should be used as fertilizer in agriculture.Zalul Environmental Association. "Zalul protests against the Shafdan's plan to construct a thermal plant that will cost 957 million shekels". February 2006.
In July 2008, in the middle of another drought, the Knesset established a state commission of inquiry into the slow progress of desalination. Desalination capacity was less than a third of the amount set by the cabinet, mostly due to a slowdown in tenders after a few years of relatively high rainfall. The planned water-saving activities were stopped completely and were resumed only in 2006, but at a slow pace."State inquiry commission to investigate Israel's water crisis." Haaretz. July 30, 2008. However, a vigorous water savings campaign was then started featuring videos by famous Israelis such as singer Ninet Tayeb, model Bar Refaeli and actor Moshe Ivgy. The campaign resulted in reducing water use by more than 10 percent, saving the construction of a desalination plant. In its final report in March 2010 the commission of inquiry, headed by former judge Dan Bein, concluded that changes were needed in the Water Law of 1959."C'tee urges changes to water economy", Jerusalem Post, 25 March 2010 The Finance Ministry was accused of having delayed desalination plans arguing that conservation and wastewater reuse should have been implemented first. Only years later, the ministry endorsed large-scale desalination. The Water Authority was said to have been slow, non-transparent and that it failed to coordinate with various ministries.Report reveals Israel’s crisis of confidence, Global Water Intelligence, Vol 11, Issue 4 (April 2010) Infrastructure Minister Uzi Landau endorsed the report and announced that his Ministry would submit a bill to curtail the Water Authority's powers and to put it more firmly under the control of his Ministry.'No guiding hand directs water sector', Jerusalem Post, 25 March 2010
New National Water System (2009 onwards)