In organic chemistry, an aldehyde () (lat. alcohol dehydrogenatum, dehydrogenated alcohol) is an organic compound containing a functional group with the structure .IUPAC Gold Book, aldehydes. The functional group itself (without the "R" side chain) can be referred to as an aldehyde but can also be classified as a formyl group. Aldehydes are a common motif in many chemicals important in technology and biology.
Structure and bonding Aldehyde molecules have a central carbon atom that is connected by a double bond to oxygen, a single bond to hydrogen and another single bond to a third substituent, which is carbon or, in the case of formaldehyde, hydrogen. The central carbon is often described as being sp2-hybridized. The aldehyde group is somewhat polar. The bond length is about 120–122 picometers.
Physical properties and characterization Aldehydes have properties that are diverse and that depend on the remainder of the molecule. Smaller aldehydes such as formaldehyde and acetaldehyde are soluble in water, and the volatile aldehydes have pungent odors.
Aldehydes can be identified by spectroscopic methods. Using IR spectroscopy, they display a strong νCO band near 1700 cm−1. In their 1H NMR spectra, the formyl hydrogen center absorbs near δH 9.5 to 10, which is a distinctive part of the spectrum. This signal shows the characteristic coupling to any protons on the α carbon with a small coupling constant typically less than 3.0 Hz. The 13C NMR spectra of aldehydes and ketones gives a suppressed (weak) but distinctive signal at δC 190 to 205.
Applications and occurrence Important aldehydes and related compounds. The aldehyde group (or formyl group) is colored red. From the left: (1) formaldehyde and (2) its trimer 1,3,5-trioxane, (3) acetaldehyde and (4) its enol vinyl alcohol, (5) glucose (pyranose form as α--glucopyranose), (6) the flavorant cinnamaldehyde, (7) retinal, which forms with opsins photoreceptors, and (8) the vitamin pyridoxal.
Naturally occurring aldehydes Traces of many aldehydes are found in essential oils and often contribute to their pleasant odours, including cinnamaldehyde, cilantro, and vanillin. Possibly due to the high reactivity of the formyl group, aldehydes are not commonly found in organic "building block" molecules, such as amino acids, nucleic acids, and lipids. However, most sugars are derivatives of aldehydes. These aldoses exist as hemiacetals, a sort of masked form of the parent aldehyde. For example, in aqueous solution only a tiny fraction of glucose exists as the aldehyde.
Synthesis
Hydroformylation Of the several methods for preparing aldehydes, one dominant technology is hydroformylation.Bertleff, W.; Roeper, M. and Sava, X. (2003) "Carbonylation" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH: Weinheim. Hydroformylation is conducted on a very large scale for diverse aldehydes. It involves treatment of the alkene with a mixture of hydrogen gas and carbon monoxide in the presence of a metal catalyst. Illustrative is the generation of butyraldehyde by hydroformylation of propylene:
One complication with this process is the formation of isomers, such as isobutyraldehyde:
Oxidative routes
The largest operations involve methanol and ethanol respectively to formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, which are produced on multimillion ton scale annually. Other large scale aldehydes are produced by autoxidation of hydrocarbons: benzaldehyde from toluene, acrolein from propylene, and methacrolein from isobutene. In the Wacker process, oxidation of ethylene to acetaldehyde in the presence of copper and palladium catalysts, is also used. "Green" and cheap oxygen (or air) is the oxidant of choice.
Laboratories may instead apply a wide variety of specialized oxidizing agents, which are often consumed stoichiometrically. Chromium(VI) reagents are popular. Oxidation can be achieved by heating the alcohol with an acidified solution of potassium dichromate. In this case, excess dichromate will further oxidize the aldehyde to a carboxylic acid, so either the aldehyde is distilled out as it forms (if volatile) or milder reagents such as PCC are used.
A variety of reagent systems achieve aldehydes under chromium-free conditions. One such are the hypervalent organoiodine compounds (i.e., IBX acid, Dess–Martin periodinane), although these often also oxidize the α position. A Lux-Flood acid will activate various sulfoxides (e.g. the Swern oxidation), and amine oxides convert alkyl halides to aldehydes (e.g., the Ganem oxidation). Sterically-hindered nitroxyls (i.e., TEMPO) can catalyze aldehyde formation with a cheaper oxidant.
Alternatively, vicinal diols or their oxidized sequelae (acyloins or α-hydroxy acids) can be oxidized with cleavage to two aldehydes or an aldehyde and carbon dioxide.
Specialty methods Reaction name Substrate Comment OzonolysisAlkenes Reductive work-up; similar effect with singlet oxygen and no work-up Carbonyl reductionEsters, amides Reduction of an ester with diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL-H) or sodium aluminium hydride; see also amide reduction. Rosenmund reactionAcyl chlorides Acyl chlorides selectively reduced to aldehydes. Lithium tri-t-butoxyaluminium hydride () is an effective reagent. Wittig reactionKetones A modified Wittig reaction using methoxymethylenetriphenylphosphine as a reagent. Formylation reactions Nucleophilic arenes Various reactions, for example the Vilsmeier-Haack reaction. Nef reaction Nitro compounds The acid hydrolysis of a primary nitro compound to form an aldehyde. Kornblum oxidation Haloalkanes The oxidation of primary halide with dimethyl sulfoxide to form an aldehyde. Zincke reaction Pyridines Zincke aldehydes formed in a reaction variation. Stephen aldehyde synthesis Nitriles Hydrolysis of an iminium salt generated by tin(II) chloride and HCl to form an aldehyde. Geminal halide hydrolysis Geminal dihalides Hydrolysis of primary geminal dihalides to yield aldehydes. Meyers synthesis Oxazines Hemiaminal oxazine hydrolysis with water and oxalic acid to yield an aldehyde. Hofmann rearrangement variation Unsaturated or α-hydroxy amides Aldehydes via the hydrolysis of an intermediate carbamate. McFadyen-Stevens reaction Hydrazides Base-catalyzed thermal decomposition of acylsulfonylhydrazides. Biotransformation Alkenes Lyophilized cell cultures of Trametes hirsuta in the presence of oxygen. Decarbonylation A-hydroxy acids Catalyzed by concentrated sulfuric acid
Common reactions Aldehydes participate in many reactions. Some industrially relevant reactions: condensations, e.g., to prepare plasticizers and polyols. reduction to produce alcohols, especially "oxo-alcohols".
From the biological perspective, the key reactions involve addition of nucleophiles to the formyl carbon in the formation of imines (oxidative deamination) and hemiacetals (structures of aldose sugars).
Acid-base reactions Because of resonance stabilization of the conjugate base, an α-hydrogen in an aldehyde is weakly acidic with a pKa near 17. This acidification of the α-hydrogen in aldehyde is attributed to: the electron-withdrawing quality of the formyl center and the fact that the conjugate base, an enolate anion, delocalizes its negative charge. The formyl proton itself does not readily undergo deprotonation.
Enolization Aldehydes (except those without an alpha carbon, or without protons on the alpha carbon, such as formaldehyde and benzaldehyde) can exist in either the keto or the enol tautomer. Keto–enol tautomerism is catalyzed by either acid or base. In neutral solution, the enol is the minority tautomer, reversing several times per second. But it becomes the dominant tautomer in strong acid or base solutions, and enolized aldehydes undergo nucleophilic attack at the α position.
Reduction
The formyl group can be readily reduced to a primary alcohol (). Typically this conversion is accomplished by catalytic hydrogenation either directly or by transfer hydrogenation. Stoichiometric reductions are also popular, as can be effected with sodium borohydride.
Oxidation The formyl group readily oxidizes to the corresponding carboxyl group (). The preferred oxidant in industry is oxygen or air. In the laboratory, popular oxidizing agents include potassium permanganate, nitric acid, chromium(VI) oxide, and chromic acid. The combination of manganese dioxide, cyanide, acetic acid and methanol will convert the aldehyde to a methyl ester.
Another oxidation reaction is the basis of the silver-mirror test. In this test, an aldehyde is treated with Tollens' reagent, which is prepared by adding a drop of sodium hydroxide solution into silver nitrate solution to give a precipitate of silver(I) oxide, and then adding just enough dilute ammonia solution to redissolve the precipitate in aqueous ammonia to produce complex. This reagent converts aldehydes to carboxylic acids without attacking carbon–carbon double bonds. The name silver-mirror test arises because this reaction produces a precipitate of silver, whose presence can be used to test for the presence of an aldehyde.
A further oxidation reaction involves Fehling's reagent as a test. The complex ions are reduced to a red-brick-coloured precipitate.
Aromatic aldehydes, such as benzaldehyde, do not give a positive Fehling's test, because they are not easily oxidized by mild oxidizing agents like Fehling's reagent. The benzene ring provides stability, while steric hindrance prevents the formation of the required hydrated anion intermediate.
If the aldehyde cannot form an enolate (e.g., benzaldehyde), addition of strong base induces the Cannizzaro reaction. This reaction results in disproportionation, producing a mixture of alcohol and carboxylic acid.
Nucleophilic addition reactions Nucleophiles add readily to the carbonyl group. In the product, the carbonyl carbon becomes sp3-hybridized, being bonded to the nucleophile, and the oxygen center becomes protonated:
In many cases, a water molecule is removed after the addition takes place; in this case, the reaction is classed as an addition–elimination or addition–condensation reaction. There are many variations of nucleophilic addition reactions.
Oxygen nucleophiles In the acetalisation reaction, under acidic or basic conditions, an alcohol adds to the carbonyl group and a proton is transferred to form a hemiacetal. Under acidic conditions, the hemiacetal and the alcohol can further react to form an acetal and water. Simple hemiacetals are usually unstable, although cyclic ones such as glucose can be stable. Acetals are stable, but revert to the aldehyde in the presence of acid. Aldehydes can react with water to form hydrates, . These diols are stable when strong electron withdrawing groups are present, as in chloral hydrate. The mechanism of formation is identical to hemiacetal formation.
Another aldehyde molecule can also act as the nucleophile to give polymeric or oligomeric acetals called paraldehydes.
Nitrogen nucleophiles In alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution, a primary or secondary amine adds to the carbonyl group and a proton is transferred from the nitrogen to the oxygen atom to create a carbinolamine. In the case of a primary amine, a water molecule can be eliminated from the carbinolamine intermediate to yield an imine or its trimer, a hexahydrotriazine This reaction is catalyzed by acid. Hydroxylamine () can also add to the carbonyl group. After the elimination of water, this results in an oxime. An ammonia derivative of the form such as hydrazine () or 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine can also be the nucleophile and after the elimination of water, resulting in the formation of a hydrazone, which are usually orange crystalline solids. This reaction forms the basis of a test for aldehydes and ketones.
Carbon nucleophiles