Magnus III Olafsson (Old Norse: Magnús Óláfsson, Norwegian: Magnus Olavsson; 1073 – 24 August 1103), better known as Magnus Barefoot (Old Norse: Magnús berfœttr, Norwegian: Magnus Berrføtt),"Barelegs" is also often used. The various original Norse terms are berfœttr, berbeinn and berleggr (Power (1986) p. 122). was the King of Norway from 1093 until his death in 1103. His reign was marked by aggressive military campaigns and conquest, particularly in the Norse-dominated parts of Ireland and Britain, where he extended his rule to the Kingdom of the Isles and Dublin.
As the only son of King Olaf Kyrre, Magnus was proclaimed king in southeastern Norway shortly after his father's death in 1093. In the north his claim was contested by his cousin, Haakon Magnusson (son of King Magnus Haraldsson), and the two co-ruled uneasily until Haakon's death in 1095. Disgruntled members of the nobility refused to recognise Magnus after his cousin's death, but the insurrection was short-lived. After securing his position domestically, Magnus campaigned around the Irish Sea from 1098 to 1099. He raided through Orkney, the Hebrides and Mann (the Northern and Southern Isles), and ensured Norwegian control by a treaty with the Scottish king. Based on Mann during his time in the west, Magnus had a number of forts and houses built on the island and probably also obtained suzerainty of Galloway. He sailed to Wales later in his expedition, gaining the support of Anglesey (and the Gwynedd) after aiding against the invading Norman forces from the island.
Following his return to Norway, Magnus led campaigns into Dalsland and Västergötland in Sweden, claiming an ancient border with the country. After two unsuccessful invasions and a number of skirmishes Danish king Eric Evergood initiated peace talks among the three Scandinavian monarchs, fearing that the conflict would get out of hand. Magnus concluded peace with the Swedes in 1101 by agreeing to marry Margaret, daughter of the Swedish king Inge Stenkilsson. In return, Magnus gained Dalsland as part of her dowry. He set out on his final western campaign in 1102, and may have sought to conquer Ireland. Magnus entered into an alliance with Irish king Muirchertach Ua Briain of Munster, who recognised Magnus's control of Dublin. Under unclear circumstances, while obtaining food supplies for his return to Norway, Magnus was killed in an ambush by the Ulaid the next year; territorial advances characterising his reign ended with his death.
Into modern times, his legacy has remained more pronounced in Ireland and Scotland than in his native Norway. Among the few domestic developments known during his reign, Norway developed a more centralised rule and moved closer to the European model of church organisation. Popularly portrayed as a Viking warrior rather than a medieval monarch,Power (1994) p. 222 Magnus was the last Norwegian king to fall in battle abroad, and he may in some respects be considered the final Viking king.
Background
Most information about Magnus is gleaned from Norse sagas and chronicles, which began appearing during the 12th century. The most important sources still available are the Norwegian chronicles Historia de Antiquitate Regum Norwagiensium by Theodoric the Monk and the anonymous Ágrip af Nóregskonungasögum (or simply Ágrip) from the 1180s and the Icelandic sagas Heimskringla (by Snorri Sturluson), Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna, which date to about the 1220s. While the later sagas are the most detailed accounts, they are also generally considered the least reliable. Additional information about Magnus, in particular his campaigns, is found in sources from the British Isles, which included contemporary accounts.
Magnus was born around the end of 1073 as the only son of King Olaf Kyrre.Power (1986) p. 111 His mother's identity is uncertain; she is identified as Tora Arnesdatter (daughter of otherwise-unknown Arne Låge) in Morkinskinna and Fagrskinna, as Tora Joansdatter in Heimskringla, Hrokkinskinna and HryggjarstykkiFørsund (2012) p. 14 and an unnamed daughter of "Ragnvald jarl" from Godøy, Sunnmøre in the genealogical text Af en gl. ætleg (commonly known as Sunnmørsættleggen).Larsen and Sulebust (1994) pp. 213–214 The historical consensus (including P. A. Munch and Claus Krag) has favoured Tora Arnesdatter, but the other claims have also gained support. Anders Stølen has argued that she was a daughter of Ragnvald jarlStølen (1988) p. 259 (who has been identified as Rognvald Brusason, Earl of Orkney by Ola Kvalsund),Larsen and Sulebust (1994) p. 213 while historian Randi Helene Førsund has considered Tora Joansdatter more likely.
Magnus grew up among the hird (royal retinue) of his father in Nidaros (modern Trondheim), de facto capital of Norway at the time. His father's cousin, the chieftain Tore Ingeridsson, was foster-father to Magnus. In his youth, he was apparently more similar to his warlike grandfather, King Harald Hardrada, than to his father (who bore the byname Kyrre: "the Peaceful").Førsund (2012) pp. 14–15 According to Snorri Sturluson, Magnus was considered handsome and gifted in learning; although he was shorter in stature than his grandfather Harald, he was reportedly known as "Magnus the Tall". Magnus's more-common byname, "Barefoot" or "Barelegs", was—according to Snorri—due to his adopting the Gaelic dress of the Irish and Scots: a short tunic, which left the lower legs bare. Another version (by Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus) maintains that he acquired the nickname because he was forced to flee from a Swedish attack in his bare feet, while a third explains that he rode barefoot (like the Irish). Due to Magnus's aggressive nature and his campaigns abroad, he also had the nickname styrjaldar-Magnús ("Warrior Magnus" or "Magnus the Strife-lover").Magnus Barefoot's saga, chapter 18.
Reign
Establishing authority Norway had experienced a long period of peace during the reign of Magnus's father, Olaf. Magnus may have been present when Olaf died in Rånrike, Båhuslen (southeastern Norway) in September 1093 and was probably proclaimed king at the Borgarting, the thing (assembly) of the adjacent region of Viken later that month.Førsund (2012) p. 18 When Magnus became king, he already had a network of support among the Norwegian aristocracy. Although sources are unclear about the first year of his reign, it is apparent that Magnus's focus was on the west (towards the British Isles). Since conditions were chaotic in Norse-dominated parts of the British Isles since the death of Thorfinn the Mighty, this provided Magnus an opportunity to intervene in local power struggles.Førsund (2012) pp. 23–25 According to some accounts, he made his first expedition west in 1093–94 (or 1091–92),Power (1986) p. 112 helping Scottish king Donald Bane to conquer Edinburgh and the Scottish throneFørsund (2012) p. 27 and possibly gaining control of the Southern Isles (Suðreyjar) in return.Førsund (2012) p. 55 It is unclear if this early expedition took place, since it is not directly referenced in early reliable sources or the sagas.Power (1986) pp. 112–117
Magnus was opposed by his cousin Haakon Magnusson, son of King Olaf's brother and short-lived co-ruler King Magnus Haraldsson, who claimed half the kingdom. Haakon was proclaimed king in the Uplands and at the Øyrating, the thing of Trøndelag (in central Norway). According to Førsund, Haakon took control of the entire portion of the kingdom once held by his father (also including the Frostating—the thing of Hålogaland in northern Norway—and the Gulating—the thing of western Norway).Førsund (2012) pp. 27–28 Haakon secured support by relieving farmers of taxes and duties (including taxes dating back to the Danish rule of Sweyn Knutsson during the early 1030s), while Magnus pursued costly policies and demanded lengthy military service.Førsund (2012) pp. 31–33 After Magnus settled at the new royal estate in Nidaros for the winter of 1094–95, Haakon also travelled to the city and took up residence at the old royal estate.Førsund (2012) pp. 29–31 Their relationship became increasingly tense, culminating when Haakon saw Magnus's longships fully rigged at sea. Haakon summoned the Øyrating in response, leading Magnus to sail southwards. Haakon attempted to intercept Magnus by travelling south to Viken by land (over the mountains of Dovrefjell),Magnus Barefoot's saga, chapter 2. but he died unexpectedly while hunting in February 1095.Førsund (2012) p. 31
The strongman behind Haakon's monarchy had been his foster-father Tore Tordsson ("Steigar-Tore"), who refused to recognise Magnus as king after Haakon's death. With Egil Aslaksson and other noblemen, he had the otherwise-unknown Sweyn Haraldsson set up as a pretender. Although later sagas maintain that Sweyn was Danish, some modern historians have speculated that he may have been a son of Harald Hardrada. The revolt was based in the Uplands, but also gained support from noblemen elsewhere in the country.Førsund (2012) p. 42 After several weeks of fighting, Magnus captured Tore and his supporters and had them hanged on the island of Vambarholm (outside Hamnøy, Lofoten, in northern Norway). Magnus was reportedly furious because he could not pardon Egil, a potentially useful, young and resourceful nobleman. As king, his honour would only allow a pardon if other noblemen pleaded for Egil's life; this did not happen.Førsund (2012) pp. 42–47
Magnus's final domestic dispute was with the noble Sveinke Steinarsson, who refused to recognise him as king. Although Sveinke reduced piracy in Viken, he was forced into exile for three years after negotiating with Magnus's men. Since piracy increased soon after Sveinke's departure (possibly encouraged by Sveinke himself), Magnus met him in the Danish province of Halland to request his return to Norway. They reconciled; Sveinke became a loyal supporter of Magnus, now the undisputed king of Norway.Førsund (2012) pp. 47–49
Other developments
Since the Norse sources (including the skaldic verses which were the sagas' main sources) chiefly describe war-related matters, less is known about other events during the reigns of the early Norwegian kings. Snorri, for instance, wrote fifteen pages about Magnus and only two pages about Magnus's peaceful father Olaf Kyrre (despite Olaf's reign lasting almost three times longer than Magnus's). Modern historians have noted that this probably has made the image of kings like Magnus Barefoot one-sided (in Magnus's case, skewed towards his deeds as a warrior).Krag (1995) p. 168
Magnus's rule was generally marked by Norway's increasing similarity to other European kingdoms. Royal rule became established, and he consolidated power through a network of powerful noblemen (some of whom were relatives); church organisation also developed. The Nordic bishops belonged to the Archdiocese of Hamburg-Bremen until a year after Magnus's death (when the Archdiocese of Lund was formed); priests and bishops were largely foreigners from England and Germany. In reality, however, Magnus ruled the church in Norway.Førsund (2012) pp. 88–91
Through numismatics, it is known that minting reform began during Magnus's reign. The reform restored silver content in coins to around 90 percent, the level at Harald Hardrada's 1055 reform (Haraldsslåtten) which reduced silver content to about 30 percent (the remainder of the coin was copper). Coin size in Magnus's reform was reduced to .45 gram, half the previous weight. Although the silver value of a coin remained about the same, copper was not needed in coins.Krag (1995) p. 215
First Irish Sea campaign