The United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG) was a United Nations (UN) peacekeeping force deployed from April 1989 to March 1990 in Namibia, known at the time as South West Africa, to monitor the peace process and elections there. Namibia had been occupied by South Africa since 1915, first under a League of Nations mandate and later illegally. Since 1966, South African forces had been combating an insurgency by the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), the military wing of the Namibian-nationalist South West African People's Organization (SWAPO). The UN Security Council passed Resolution 435 in 1978, which set out a plan for elections administered by South Africa but under UN supervision and control after a ceasefire. However, only in 1988 were the two parties able to agree to a ceasefire. As UNTAG began to deploy peacekeepers, military observers, police, and political workers, hostilities were briefly renewed on the day the transition process was supposed to begin. After a new round of negotiations, a second date was set and the elections process began in earnest. Elections for the constitutional assembly took place in November 1989. They were peaceful and declared free and fair; SWAPO won a majority of the seats. The new constitution was adopted four months later and it was followed by Namibia's official independence and the successful conclusion of UNTAG.
Background
South African rule
During World War I, South Africa occupied German South West Africa, present-day Namibia. After the war, South Africa was granted the League of Nations Mandate to administer the territory of South West Africa as a colony. South Africa ran the country as if it were simply another province, granting it political representation in the South African Parliament (though under discriminatory apartheid restrictions), and integrating it economically into the country. Though there was talk of official union, the government never officially acted to annex the territory.
After World War II, when the United Nations superseded the League of Nations, South Africa refused to accept a UN Trusteeship over South West Africa and simultaneously declared the League Mandate void, as the League no longer existed. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) declared that though South Africa had no legal obligation to accept the trusteeship, it also had no legal right to void the Mandate.
Fighting begins
In 1966, the UN General Assembly revoked South Africa's Mandate and declared South West Africa to be under UN administration until it could gain independence. Also in 1966, SWAPO, which had become the preeminent nationalist organization in Namibia in the early 1960s, begin to launch guerrilla attacks from Zambia with its military wing, known as the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN). The first skirmish between PLAN and the South African Defence Force (SADF) in what became known as the Namibian War of Independence took place on 26 August 1966 at Omugulugwombashe. Over the next few years, there followed a series of General Assembly resolutions concerning the territory including one, in 1968 renaming it Namibia, and many others condemning the South African occupation and calling for elections. The UN Security Council endorsed the actions of the General Assembly in United Nations Security Council Resolution 264 of 1969. Meanwhile, South Africa went about creating its own regime in Namibia, without free elections or international participation.
In 1975, Angola, Namibia's northern neighbour, gained its independence from Portugal and a coalition government took over there. However, the coalition quickly broke down and the Angolan Civil War began. The United States and South Africa supported one group, the National Union for the Total independence of Angola (UNITA), the Soviet Union backed the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), and the People's Republic of China supported the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). The MPLA occupied the capital and the economically crucial oil fields with the help of Cuban troops and was soon recognized as the legitimate government by many countries, although UNITA and FNLA united and continued to control large swaths of the country. The MPLA allowed SWAPO to establish bases on Angolan soil from which to launch attacks on the SADF and other targets.
UN response On 30 January 1976 the Security Council adopted Resolution 385 which declared that it was imperative to hold free elections under UN supervision and control for the whole of Namibia as one political entity. Because South Africa did not initially accept the plan, the five Western members of the Security Council (the Contact Group) held a series of talks with the "Frontline States", SWAPO, South Africa and the UN Commissioner for Namibia, Martti Ahtisaari, until a "proposal for a settlement of the Namibian situation" was eventually agreed between the negotiators and presented to the Security Council on 10 April 1978.
Foundation
Settlement proposal The settlement proposal contained a negotiated compromise. Described as a "working arrangement" which would "in no way constitute recognition of the legality of the South African presence in and administration of Namibia", it allowed South Africa, through an Administrator-General designated by it, to administer elections, but under United Nations supervision and control exercised through a Special Representative of the Secretary-General, who would be assisted by a "United Nations Transition Assistance Group" (UNTAG). Later in 1978, the UN Security Council approved a resolution with a specific, timetabled plan for SADF withdrawal and Namibian elections and authorized UNTAG, with a combined military and civilian force, to facilitate the transition to independence. The plan depended on an agreement on a so-called "D-Day" for the beginning of the ceasefire. However, by that point, South Africa had been drawn into the conflict in Angola in an attempt to crack down on the SWAPO insurgency and made a new demand: the so-called "linkage" of the withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola and their withdrawal from Namibia. Other issues, such as the composition of the UNTAG forces and the status of Namibia's important port Walvis Bay also kept the parties from reaching an agreement on a ceasefire date.
Talks stagnated during the following decade as the civil war in Angola continued. It was not until 1988 that Cuba, Angola, and South Africa came to an agreement, called the "Tripartite Accord" or the "New York Accords", mediated by US Assistant Secretary of State Chester Crocker. A series of meetings starting in London and culminating in Geneva resulted in a ceasefire agreement, set to begin on 8 August 1988. A final meeting in Brazzaville, Congo, set 1 April 1989 as "D-Day" when the implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 435 would begin. The New York Accords between Cuba, Angola and South Africa were formally signed at UN headquarters in New York City on 22 December 1988, officially ending the South African Border War though the ceasefire collapsed in Angola several months later.
Approval The Security Council expressed concern about the cost of implementing the resolution, as the UN had been suffering from a severe financial crisis in the late 1980s. However, several groups, including the Organization of African Unity (OAU), the Non-Aligned Movement, and SWAPO objected to a reduction in the size of the force from the number set in 1978. As a compromise, United Nations Secretary General, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, decided to decrease the initial deployment from 7000 to 4650, leaving the additional 2350 stationed in their home countries to be deployed if requested by the commanding officer and approved by the head of UNTAG, the Secretary-General, and the Security Council. In place of these soldiers extra police observers and military observers were added to the mission.
Finally, on 9 February 1989, the Secretary-General presented the Security Council with a resolution along with a statement of urgency, saying that everything must be done quickly if all the plans in Resolution 435 were to be carried out on schedule. The Security Council approved the mission on 16 February 1989 in United Nations Security Council Resolution 632. The General Assembly, however, did not approve the budget for the mission until 1 March 1989 and, due to continuing financial problems, even then the UN did not have reserve funds to begin making requests to member states. Full deployment of UNTAG was delayed by nearly a full month.
Mandate The UNTAG mandate under Resolution 435 was primarily to create an environment suitable for free and fair elections for a constituent assembly to draft a constitution for the nation. The entire mission was under the control of the Special Representative, Martti Ahtisaari. The military component was commanded by Lieutenant-General Dewan Prem Chand of India. UNTAG was based in Windhoek, Namibia's capital and largest city.
Civilian The civilian component of the mission had a number of parts as follows:
Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG), Martti Ahtisaari. Their role was to provide support to the SRSG, and provide the political connection with the UN in New York. Martti Ahtisaari's UNTAG office oversaw all aspects of the mission and was specifically in charge of the diplomatic negotiations with Namibian political and military leaders, including the South African Administrator-General (AG), Louis Pienaar. (27 personnel) Director of Administration. To ensure compliance with UN policy in areas such as financial accountability, logistic procedures and personnel policy. (354 personnel) Civil Police Monitors (CIVPOL). The civilian police formed the largest part of the civilian component of UNTAG, with 1500 personnel. These police were used both to monitor the actions of the existing police and security forces to prevent electoral intimidation or human rights violations as well as to assist with the establishment and maintenance of law and order. 25 member states contributed police officers to the force, which was led by Steven Fanning of Ireland. (1000 personnel) Electoral Unit. This branch of UNTAG was charged with planning, facilitating, and monitoring the elections. This group had to register and inform voters and candidates of procedures in a country with no democratic tradition, as well as provide for the secure transport and counting of ballots. Nearly 30 countries volunteered election monitors for polling stations and ballot counting. To educate the Namibian people in the electoral process and to oversee the conduct of the election by the South African Administrator General. (990 personnel) United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) was charged with monitoring and assisting the return of refugees from war-torn areas, as well as political exiles, and insurgents based in foreign countries. It both assisted in ensuring access to the country and with resettlement and reintegration into Namibian society prior to the elections. UNTAG also provided and independent jurist to adjudicate the cases of detainees, political prisoners, and forced exiles. Carl Nörgaard of Denmark was appointed to this position in 1978 and fulfilled its duties when opportunity finally presented itself in 1989. (49 personnel) Independent Jurors. To support the SRSG in the assessment and free and fair certification of the elections. (4 personnel)
Military
The military component (MILCOM) was responsible for monitoring the ceasefire, disarming SWAPO militants, overseeing the withdrawal of the SADF, and controlling the borders.
The force was organised as follows: