Tibet () is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau. It is the homeland of the Tibetans. Other ethnic groups also reside on the plateau, including Mongols, the Lhoba, Monpa, Qiang, Sherpa, and since the 20th century, Han and Hui peoples. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an average elevation of . Lying within the Himalayas, the highest point in Tibet is Mount Everestthe highest peak on Earth, standing above sea level. Today, the People's Republic of China governs most of the historical area as the Tibet Autonomous Region and autonomous prefectures within Gansu, Sichuan, Qinghai, and Yunnan provinces.
In the 7th century, the central Tibetan Yarlung dynasty expanded into surrounding areas such as Zhangzhung and Amdo, and by the 9th century the Tibetan Empire stretched from the Tarim Basin and Pamirs in the west to Yunnan and Bengal in the southeast, ruling over various non-Tibetan peoples. Following its dissolution, the region was divided among a number of principalities and tribal groups. Central Tibet and peripheral areas often fell under Chinese or Mongol patronage between the 13th and the 18th centuries, when the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism rose to prominence. The Qing dynasty established its rule in Tibet after expelling Mongol forces and incorporated many areas into Sichuan and other administrative regions.Goldstein, Melvyn, C., Change, Conflict and Continuity among a Community of Nomadic Pastoralist: A Case Study from Western Tibet, 1950–1990, 1994: "What is Tibet? – Fact and Fancy", pp. 76–87Petech, L., China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet, p51 & p98
Following the Xinhai Revolution in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet, but it was constitutionally claimed by the Republic of China as the Tibet Area. The 13th Dalai Lama declared independence in 1913, although it was neither recognised by the Chinese government nor any foreign power.Clark, Gregory, "In fear of China", 1969, saying: ' Tibet, although enjoying independence at certain periods of its history, had never been recognized by any single foreign power as an independent state. The closest it has ever come to such recognition was the British formula of 1943: suzerainty, combined with autonomy and the right to enter into diplomatic relations. ' Central Tibet operated autonomously until 1951 when, following the Battle of Chamdo, it was annexed by the People's Republic of China after the 14th Dalai Lama ratified the Seventeen Point Agreement. His government was abolished after the failure of the 1959 Tibetan uprising.
The Tibetan independence movement is principally led by the Tibetan diaspora. Various human rights organizations have reported restrictions on civil liberties, including limitations on religious practices, freedom of expression, and assembly, with the Chinese government maintaining strict control over information. Reports on the extent of these restrictions vary, and claims of cultural suppression, including the sinicization of Tibet, are a subject of debate among scholars and international observers.
The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism; other religions include Bön, an indigenous religion similar to Tibetan Buddhism; Islam; and Christianity. Tibetan Buddhism is a primary influence on the art, music, and festivals of the region. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences. Staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea. With the growth of tourism in recent years, the service sector has become the largest sector in Tibet, accounting for 50.1% of the local GDP in 2020. In 2025, around 70 million tourists visited Tibet.
Traditionally, the word Tibet referred only to central Tibet (roughly Ü-Tsang geographically) in scholarly literature. The relatively recent usage of Tibet to include Amdo and Kham that historically were often not ruled or treated as part of the same polity as central Tibet has led to confusion and diplomatic difficulties.
Name and languages
The endonymic term for Tibet is Bod(Bö) (, ). Some scholars believe it is derived from the Sanskrit Bhauṭṭa, Étienne de la Vaissière, "The Triple System of Orography in Ptolemy's Xinjiang", Exegisti Monumenta: Festschrif in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams, eds. Werner Sundermann, Almut Hintze & François de Blois (Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz, 2009), 532. and referenced in Greek in Geography (Ptolemy) and Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.Beckwith (1987), pg. 7 The first known English word Tibet dates back to 1827 CE and may have been derived from Arabic, Mongolic, or Turkic languages.Behr, Wolfgang, 1994. "Stephan V. Beyer 'The Classical Tibetan Language' (book review)." Pp. 558–59 in Oriens 34, edited by R. Sellheim. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015.
Before the 1990s, Tibet in English scholarly literature almost always referred only to central Tibet (roughly Ü-Tsang geographically). The currently promoted definition of Tibet with its broader inclusion of cultural or ethnographic Tibetan areas, also known as "Greater Tibet", often leads to historical misunderstandings and confusion, because Amdo and Kham were often not treated as part of the same polity as central Tibet even by the government in Lhasa. The push by Tibetan exiles for a "Greater Tibet" has made negotiations with China more difficult for the 14th Dalai Lama because their demands cover areas with non-Tibetan populations and histories.
Linguists generally classify Tibetic languages under the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. They come in numerous dialects which are generally not mutually intelligible. Tibetic languages are spoken across the Tibetan plateau, Bhutan, parts of Nepal, and northern India such as Sikkim. In general, dialects of central Tibet (including the prestige Lhasa variety), Kham, Amdo and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects. Other forms, particularly Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Sherpa, and Ladakhi, are considered by their speakers to be separate languages largely for political reasons. However, if the latter group is included in the calculation, then 'greater Tibetan' is spoken by approximately 6 million people in the region and about 150,000 speakers in exile.OrigiNations. Diaspora Tibetans. Retrieved September 2, 2025, from https://www.origi-nations.org/asia/tibetan-diaspora/
Although spoken Tibetan varies according to the region, the written language based on Classical Tibetan is consistent throughout. This is probably due to the long-standing influence of the Tibetan empire, whose rule encompassed and at times extended beyond the present Tibetan linguistic area, from Gilgit-Baltistan in the west to Yunnan and Sichuan in the east and from north of Qinghai Lake to as far south as Bhutan. The Tibetan script, which is used for Ladakhi and Dzongkha as well, is derived from the ancient Indian Brahmi script.Kapstein 2006, p. 22.
Starting in 2001, the local deaf sign languages of Tibet were standardized, and Tibetan Sign Language is now being promoted across the country.
History
=== Early history ===
Humans inhabited the Tibetan Plateau at least 21,000 years ago. This population was largely replaced around 3,000 BP by Neolithic immigrants from northern China, but there is a partial genetic continuity between the Paleolithic inhabitants and contemporary Tibetan populations.
The earliest Tibetan historical texts identify the Zhang Zhung culture as a people who migrated from the Amdo region into what is now the region of Guge in western Tibet.Norbu 1989, pp. 127–128 Zhang Zhung is considered to be the original home of the Bön religion.Helmut Hoffman in McKay 2003 vol. 1, pp. 45–68 By the 1st century BCE, a neighboring kingdom arose in the Yarlung valley, and the Yarlung king, Drigum Tsenpo, attempted to remove the influence of the Zhang Zhung by expelling the Zhang's Bön priests from Yarlung. He was assassinated and Zhang Zhung continued its dominance of the region until it was annexed by Songtsen Gampo in the 7th century. Prior to Songtsen Gampo, the kings of Tibet were more mythological than factual, and there is insufficient evidence of their existence.Haarh, Erik: Extract from "The Yar Lun Dynasty", in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 147; Richardson, Hugh: The Origin of the Tibetan Kingdom, in: The History of Tibet, ed. Alex McKay, Vol. 1, London 2003, p. 159 (and list of kings p. 166-167).
Tibetan Empire
In the 6th century, the king, Namri Songtsen, began to annex neighboring tribes by force. He was later murdered and his son Songtsen Gampo succeeded him and quelled rebellions in various regions. Songtsen Gampo inherited his father's will and successively conquered and annexed other countries such as "Songbo" in the Yushu area of Qinghai, Sumpa in the west, "Kangguo" (called "Dongnwu Kingdom" in the Old Book of Tang) in Qianduo (now Chamdo), "Fuguo (Chinese:附国)" in Ganzi, "Fanlu (Chinese:蕃绿)" in Litang, and Tuyuhun in Qinghai. Songtsen Gampo also led a large army to attack Zhangzhung in 642. It took him three years to conquer Zhangzhung and sent Khyungpo Pungse Sutse as the governor of Zhangzhung. Zhangzhung then became a vassal state of the Tibetan Empire.
Songtsen Gampo also brought in many reforms, and Tibetan power spread rapidly, creating a large and powerful empire. It is traditionally considered that his first wife was the Princess of Nepal, Bhrikuti, and that she played a great role in the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. In 640, he married Princess Wencheng, the niece of the Chinese emperor Taizong of Tang China.Forbes, Andrew; Henley, David (2011). 'The First Tibetan Empire' in: China's Ancient Tea Horse Road. Chiang Mai: Cognoscenti Books. ASIN: B005DQV7Q2
Under the next few Tibetan kings, Buddhism became established as the state religion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas of Central Asia, while major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching the Tang's capital Chang'an (modern Xi'an) in late 763.Beckwith 1987, pg. 146 However, the Tibetan occupation of Chang'an only lasted for fifteen days, after which they were defeated by Tang and its ally, the Turkic Uyghur Khaganate.
The Kingdom of Nanzhao (in Yunnan and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.Marks, Thomas A. (1978). "Nanchao and Tibet in South-western China and Central Asia." The Tibet Journal. Vol. 3, No. 4. Winter 1978, pp. 13–16.
In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general Gao Xianzhi, who tried to re-open the direct communications between Central Asia and Kashmir. By 750, the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the Chinese. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the Arabs and Qarluqs at the Battle of Talas (751) and the subsequent civil war known as the An Lushan Rebellion (755), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed.
At its height in the 780s to 790s, the Tibetan Empire reached its highest glory when it ruled and controlled a territory stretching from modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burma, China, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.