The Śvetāmbara (; also spelled Shwetambara, Shvetambara, Svetambara or Swetambara) is one of the two main branches of Jainism, the other being the Digambara. Śvetāmbara in Sanskrit means "white-clad", and refers to its ascetics' practice of wearing white clothes, which sets it apart from the Digambara or "sky-clad" Jains whose ascetic practitioners go nude. Śvetāmbaras do not believe that ascetics must practice nudity.
The Śvetāmbara and Digambara traditions have had historical differences ranging from their dress code, their temples and iconography, attitude towards Jain nuns, their legends and the texts they consider as important. Śvetāmbara Jain communities are currently found mainly in Gujarat, Rajasthan and coastal regions of Maharashtra. According to Jeffery D. Long, a scholar of Hindu and Jain studies, about four-fifths of all Jains in India are Śvetāmbaras.
History and lineage
Śvetāmbaras consider themselves to be the original followers of Mahavira and that the Digambara sect emerged in 82 AD as a result of a rebellion by a monk named Sivabhuti, who was the disciple of Arya Krishnasuri. This account is found in 5th century Śvetāmbara text Viśeśāvaśyaka Bhaśya written by Jinabhadra. This is also the earliest formal recognition of the schism between the two sects.
Śvetāmbaras have several pattavalis that mention the historical lineage of their chief monks (acharya) beginning with the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira. The most popular of the pattavalis is the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra, a canonical scripture of the Śvetāmbaras. According to the lineage mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra, Sthulabhadra was, unequivocally, the successor of Bhadrabāhu. Śvetāmbaras also believe that both of them were white-clad monks. These beliefs are completely rejected by the Digambara sect.
To manage the large following of the murtipujaka sect, Gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. Each gaccha has its own pattavali. One of the 84 gacchas was the Upkeśa Gaccha. While all other pattavalis (including the one mentioned in the Kalpa Sūtra) trace their lineage to the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira, Upkesa Gacchas pattavali traces its lineage to the 23rd Tirthankara Parshvanatha. Kesiswami, one of Parshvanatha's chief disciples, Acharya Ratnaprabhasuri, the founder of the Oswal community as well as Acharya Swayamprabhasuri, the founder of the Porwal community belonged to this gaccha. It was in existence until 1930s when it went extinct.
A majority of the Śvetāmbaras are murtipujakas, that is they actively offer devotional puja in temples, worship before the images or idols of Tirthankaras and important Jain demi-gods and demi-goddesses. Historically, this is the oldest sub-tradition of the Śvetāmbaras and all other aniconic sects have emerged in and after the 14th century.
The Śvetāmbara murtipujaka (idol-worshipping) sect is the largest of all sects and sub-sects of Jainism and has the most number of followers as well as monks. To manage the large following, gacchas (administrative sub-divisions) were created. 84 gacchas have come into existence till date and most of them are extinct now. Only 4 survive today - Tapa Gaccha, Kharatara Gaccha, Parshvachandra Gaccha, and Achal Gaccha. Of these, Tapa Gaccha is the largest, with the most monks and followers.
The murtipujaka sect has had various eminent monks, including, but not limited to Vimalsuri, Hemachandra, Hiravijaya, Devardhigani Kshamashraman, Yashovijaya, Anandghan, Siddhasena, and Manatunga.
Scriptures and literature
Śvetāmbara literature can be classified into two major categories canonical and non-canonical. Canonical scriptures state the Jain cosmology and the Jain philosophy as well as the foundational aspects of understanding Jainism. They also govern the conduct of monks, nuns, as well as the laity. Non-canonical scriptures include, but are not limited to commentaries on canonical scriptures, biographies of the Śalākāpuruṣas (as in Hemachandra's Trisasti-shalakapurusa-caritra), Jain mythology, treatise and extensions of the canonical scriptures, lists of rare and uncommon words and knowledge base and dictionaries for Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, Maharashtri Prakrit, and Sanskrit, devotional hymns (stavan, stuti, sajjhay, or mantra), and miscellaneous scriptures.
Āgamas or Canonical Literature The Śvetāmbara canon consists of 45 scriptures, mostly written in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. They are considered to be what is left of Mahavira's teachings. Historically, the knowledge of these scriptures was passed down orally in a preceptor-disciple system (guru-shishya parampara). However, the memory of the monks weakened in the 12-year long famine as described in the Kalpa Sūtra. As a result, most of the knowledge of the canonical scriptures was lost. The remaining canon was codified at the Great Council of Vallabhi under leadership of Devardhigani Kshamashramana, which was held at Vallabhi in 454 CE resulting in the 45 scriptures that govern the Śvetāmbara sect's religious practices till date.
From a linguistic point of view, Śvetāmbara canonical scriptures are the oldest of all Jain literature. The Ācārāṅga Sūtra, Uttaradhyayana Sutra, and the Sthananga Sutra of the Śvetāmbara canon are considered to have been created in 5th-4th century BC. Following is a list of the 45 canonical scriptures followed by the Śvetāmbaras: -
Twelve Angās (limbs) Āyāraṃga (Jain Prakrit; Sanskrit: Ācāranga, meaning: 'On monastic conduct') Sūyagaḍa (Sūtrakṛtāṅga, 'On heretical systems and views') Ṭhāṇaṃga (Sthānāṅga, 'On different points [of the teaching]') Samavāyaṃga (Samavāyāṅga, 'On "rising numerical groups) Viyāha-pannatti / Bhagavaī (Vyākhyā-prajñapti or Bhagavatī, 'Exposition of explanations' or 'the holy one') Nāyā-dhamma-kahāo (Jñāta-dharmakathānga, 'Parables and religious stories') Uvāsaga-dasāo (Upāsaka-daśāḥ,'Ten chapters on the Jain lay follower') Aṇuttarovavāiya-dasāo (Antakṛd-daśāḥ, 'Ten chapters on those who put an end to rebirth in this very life') Anuttaraupapātikadaśāh (Anuttaropapātika-daśāḥ, 'Ten chapters on those who were reborn in the uppermost heavens') Paṇha-vāgaraṇa (Praśna-vyākaraṇa, 'Questions and explanations') Vivāga-suya (Vipākaśruta,'Bad or good results of deeds performed') Drstivada (Driśtivāda, 'contained the 14 purvas and is considered lost now') Twelve Upāṅgas (auxiliary limbs) Uvavāiya-sutta (Sanskrit: Aupapātika-sūtra,'Places of rebirth') Rāya-paseṇaijja or Rāyapaseṇiya (Rāja-praśnīya, 'Questions of the king') Jīvājīvābhigama (Jīvājīvābhigama, 'Classification of animate and inanimate entities') Pannavaṇā (Prajñāpanā, 'Enunciation on topics of philosophy and ethics') Sūriya-pannatti (Sūrya-prajñapti, 'Exposition on the sun') Jambūdvīpa-pannatti (Jambūdvīpa-prajñapti, 'Exposition on the Jambū continent and the Jain universe') Canda-pannatti (Candra-prajñapti, 'Exposition on the moon and the Jain universe') Nirayāvaliyāo or Kappiya (Narakāvalikā, 'Series of stories on characters reborn in hells') Kappāvaḍaṃsiāo (Kalpāvataṃsikāḥ, 'Series of stories on characters reborn in the kalpa heavens') Pupphiāo (Puṣpikāḥ, 'Flowers' refers to one of the stories') Puppha-cūliāo (Puṣpa-cūlikāḥ, 'The nun Puṣpacūlā') Vaṇhi-dasāo (Vṛṣṇi-daśāh, 'Stories on characters from the legendary dynasty known as Andhaka-Vṛṣṇi') Six Chedasūtras (Texts relating to the conduct and behaviour of monks and nuns) Āyāra-dasāo (Sanskrit: Ācāradaśāh, 'Ten [chapters] about monastic conduct', chapter 8 is the famed Kalpa-sūtra.) Bihā Kappa (Bṛhat Kalpa, '[Great] Religious code') Vavahāra (Vyavahāra, 'Procedure') Nisīha (Niśītha, 'Interdictions') Jīya-kappa (Jīta-kalpa, Customary rules), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjakas Mahā-nisīha (Mahā-niśītha, Large Niśītha), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjakas Four Mūlasūtras ('Fundamental texts' which are foundational works studied by new monastics) Dasaveyāliya-sutta (Sanskrit: Daśavaikālika-sūtra), this is memorized by all new Jain mendicants Uttarajjhayaṇa-sutta (Uttarādhyayana-sūtra) Āvassaya-sutta (Āvaśyaka-sūtra) Piṇḍa-nijjutti and Ogha-nijjutti (Piṇḍa-niryukti and Ogha-niryukti), only accepted as canonical by Mūrti-pūjakas Two Cūlikasūtras ("appendixes") Nandī-sūtra – discusses the five types of knowledge Anuyogadvāra-sūtra – a technical treatise on analytical methods, discusses Anekantavada Ten Paiṇṇayasūtras ("miscellaneous texts") Cau-saraṇa (Sanskrit: Catuḥśaraṇa, The 'four refuges') Āura-paccakkhāṇa (Ātura-pratyākhyāna, 'Sick man's renunciation') Bhatta-parinnā (Bhakta-parijñā, 'Renunciation of food') Saṃthāraga (Saṃstāraka, 'Straw bed') Tandula-veyāliya (Taṇḍula-vaicārika, 'Reflection on rice grains') Canda-vejjhaya (Candravedhyaka, 'Hitting the mark') Devinda-tthaya (Devendra-stava, 'Praise of the kings of gods') Gaṇi-vijjā (Gaṇi-vidyā, 'A Gaṇi's knowledge') Mahā-paccakkhāṇa (Mahā-pratyākhyāna, 'Great renunciation') Vīra-tthava (Vīra-stava, 'Great renunciation')
The above list makes it 46, but the last angā Driśtivāda is considered to be lost by both the sects. It was this scripture that contained the 14 purvas (14 scriptures containing extensive knowledge) of Jainism.
Non-Canonical Literature All texts or pieces of literature written by Śvetāmbara monks, except the ones stated above are considered to be non-canonical in nature. Following are some popular examples. However, the complete list is inexhaustive as the Śvetāmbara sect has always had more monks than the Digambara sect: -
Commentaries on canonical scriptures: Hemachandra's Yogaśāstra Haribhadra's Yogadṛṣṭisamuccaya Yashovijaya's Gyānsār Jinabhadra's Viśeśāvaśyaka Bhaśya Biographies of Śalākāpuruṣas and other monks Hemachandra's Trīṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacharitra (biographies of the lives of 63 illustrious men) Hemachandra's Pariśiṣṭaparvan Vimalsuri's Paumachariyam (oldest of all Jain versions of Ramayana) Devotional hymns Manatunga's Bhaktāmara Stotra Siddhasena's Kalyān Mandir Stotra Siddhasena's Vardhamān Śakrastav Stotra Hemachandra's Sakalārhat Stotra Treatise on languages and grammar Rajendrasuri's 7-part Abhidhānarājaindrakōśa Hemachandra's Siddha-Hema-Śabdanuśāśana Hemachandra's Tattvaprakāśikā prakāś (the grammar of the old Gujarati language) Hemachandra's Abhidhāna-cintāmaṇi-kośa Hemachandra's Anekarth Kośa Hemachandra's Deśi-Śabda-Sangraho
Religious practices
The Chaturvidha Sangha There are vast differences between the practices of the Śvetāmbaras and the Digambaras with some fundamental overlaps. Śvetāmbara scriptures divide the Jain Sangha into four parts and the congregation is popularly known as the chaturvidha sangha (a sangha comprising four parts). The four parts are monks, nuns, male lay followers (also known as śrāvakas), and female lay followers (also known as śrāvikās). Religious practices of the Śvetāmbara sect differ for each section (monastics and laity) of the sangha.
Monasticism
Preparing for Initiation Right before initiation, an ascetic-to-be performs his/her final puja of the Tirthankara idols. Monks and nuns are not permitted to perform puja of the idols because they are not permitted to bathe all their life and Śvetāmbara scriptures only permit a person with clean body and after bathing may perform puja of the idols. Ceremonious donation of all world possessions is performed before initiation.
Initiation Upon initiation, a monk or a nun renounces all worldly possessions and relations, takes the Five Vows and tears his/her hair out. A newly-initiated monk/nun is ceremoniously given the rajoharan by their preceptor (who is always only an acharya). Unlike as in the Digambara sect where monks and nuns are not forbidden from touching each other and lay-followers of the opposite gender, monks and nuns of the Śvetāmbara sect do not touch persons of the opposite gender (neither mendicants nor lay-followers of the opposite gender) and observe extreme celibacy all their life.