From its origin as a city-state on the peninsula of Italy in the 8th century BC, to its rise as an empire covering much of Southern Europe, Western Europe, the Near East, and North Africa to its fall in the 5th century AD, the political history of Ancient Rome was closely entwined with its military history. The core of the campaign history of the Roman military is an aggregate of different accounts of the Roman military's land battles, from its initial defense against and subsequent conquest of the city's hilltop neighbors on the Italian Peninsula, to the ultimate struggle of the Western Roman Empire for its existence against invading Huns, Vandals and Germanic tribes. These accounts were written by various authors throughout and after the history of the Empire. Following the First Punic War, naval battles were less significant than land battles to the military history of Rome due to its encompassment of lands of the periphery and its unchallenged dominance of the Mediterranean Sea.
The Roman army battled first against its tribal neighbours and Etruscan towns within Italy, and later came to dominate the Mediterranean and at its height the provinces of Britannia and Asia Minor. As with most ancient civilizations, Rome's military served the triple purpose of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order.Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations, p. 240 From the outset, Rome's military typified this pattern, and the majority of Rome's campaigns were characterised by one of two types. The first is the territorial expansionist campaign, normally begun as a counter-offensive,Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire, p. 38 in which each victory brought subjugation of large areas of territory and allowed Rome to grow from a small town to a population of 55 million in the early empire when expansion was halted.Goldsmith, An Estimate of the Size and Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire, p. 263 The second is the civil war, which plagued Rome from its foundation to its eventual demise.
Despite their formidable reputation and host of victories, Roman armies were not invincible.Johnson, The Dream of Rome, p. 8 Romans "produced their share of incompetents"Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 15 who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal, to win the battle but lose the war. The history of Rome's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome, p. 31Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p. 96
Kingdom (753–509 BC)
Knowledge of Roman history stands apart from other civilizations in the ancient world. Its chronicles, military and otherwise, document the city's very foundation to its eventual demise. Although some histories have been lost, such as Trajan's account of the Dacian Wars, and others, such as Rome's earliest histories, are at least semi-apocryphal, the extant histories of Rome's military history are extensive.
Rome's earliest history, from the time of its founding as a small tribal village,Pennell, Ancient Rome, first page of Chapter III. to the downfall of its kings, is the least well preserved. Although the early Romans were literate to some degree,Grant, The History of Rome, p. 23 this void may be due to the lack of will to record their history at that time, or such histories as they did record were lost.Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. IX, para. 3
Although the Roman historian Livy (59 BC – 17 AD)Ronald Syme, following G. M. Hirst, has argued for 64 BC–12 AD. For a presentation on the dates see Livy. lists a series of seven kings of early Rome in his work Ab urbe condita, from its establishment through its earliest years, the first four kings (Romulus,Florus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 1 Numa,Florus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 2Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 6 Tullus HostiliusFlorus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 3 and Ancus Marcius)Florus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 4 may be apocryphal. A number of points of view have been proposed. Grant and others argue that prior to the establishment of the Etruscan kingdom of Rome under the traditional fifth king, Tarquinius Priscus,Pennell, Ancient Rome, Ch. V, para. 1 Rome would have been led by a religious leader of some sort.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 21 Very little is known of Rome's military history from this era, and what history has come down to us is more legendary than factual. Traditionally, Romulus fortified the Palatine Hill after founding the city, and shortly thereafter Rome was "equal to any of the surrounding cities in her prowess in war".Livy, The Rise of Rome, p. 13
"Events before the city was founded or planned, which have been handed down more as pleasing poetic fictions than as reliable records of historical events, I intend neither to affirm nor to refute. To antiquity we grant the indulgence of making the origins of cities more impressive by comingling the human with the divine, and if any people should be permitted to sanctify its inception and reckon the gods as its founders, surely the glory of the Roman people in war is such that, when it boasts Mars in particular as its parent... the nations of the world would as easily acquiesce in this claim as they do in our rule." Livy, on Rome's early historyLivy, The Rise of Rome, p. 3
The first of the campaigns fought by the Romans in this legendary account are the wars with various Latin cities and the Sabines. According to Livy, the Latin village of Caenina responded to the event of the abduction of the Sabine women by invading Roman territory, but were routed and their village captured. The Latins of Antemnae and those of Crustumerium were defeated next in a similar fashion. The remaining main body of the Sabines attacked Rome and briefly captured the citadel, but were then convinced to conclude a treaty with the Romans under which the Sabines became Roman citizens.Cassius Dio, The Roman History, Vol. 1, VII, 9; Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:10–13
There was a further war in the 8th century BC against Fidenae and Veii. In the 7th century BC there was a war with Alba Longa, a second war with Fidenae and Veii and a second Sabine War. Ancus Marcius led Rome to victory against the Latins and, according to the Fasti Triumphales, over the Veientes and Sabines also.
Tarquinius Priscus (Ruled 616–579 BC) Lucius Tarquinius Priscus' first war was waged against the Latins. Tarquinius took the Latin town of Apiolae by storm and took great booty from there back to Rome.Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:35 According to the Fasti Triumphales, the war occurred prior to 588 BC.
His military ability was tested by an attack from the Sabines. Tarquinius doubled the numbers of equites to help the war effort,"The Cholas"" University of Madras"K. A. Nilakanta Sastri and defeat the Sabines. In the peace negotiations that followed, Tarquinius received the town of Collatia and appointed his nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, also known as Egerius, as commander of the garrison which he stationed in that city. Tarquinius returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph for his victories that, according to the Fasti Triumphales, occurred on 13 September 585 BC.
Subsequently, the Latin cities of Corniculum, old Ficulea, Cameria, Crustumerium, Ameriola, Medullia and Nomentum were subdued and became Roman.Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1:38
Servius Tullius (Ruled 578–535 BC) Early in his reign, Servius Tullius warred against Veii and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. The war helped him to cement his position at Rome.Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.42 According to the Fasti Triumphales, Servius celebrated three triumphs over the Etruscans, including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC (the date of the third triumph is not legible on the Fasti).
Tarquinius Superbus (Ruled 535–509 BC) Early in his reign Tarquinius Superbus, Rome's seventh and final king, called a meeting of the Latin leaders at which he persuaded them to renew their treaty with Rome and become her allies rather than her enemies, and it was agreed that the troops of the Latins would attend at a grove sacred to the goddess Ferentina on an appointed day to form a united military force with the troops of Rome. This was done, and Tarquin formed combined units of Roman and Latin troops.Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.50–52
Tarquin next began a war against the Volsci. He took the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia, with the spoils of which he commenced the erection of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus which his father had vowed. He also celebrated a triumph for his victory.Fasti Triumphales
He was next engaged in a war with Gabii, one of the Latin cities, which had rejected the Latin treaty with Rome. Unable to take the city by force of arms, Tarquin had his son, Sextus Tarquinius, infiltrate the city, gain the trust of its people and command of its army. In time he killed or exiled the city's leaders, and handed control of the city over to his father.Livy Ab urbe condita 1.53–55
Tarquin also agreed to a peace with the Aequi, and renewed the treaty of peace between Rome and the Etruscans.Livy Ab urbe condita 1.55 According to the Fasti Triumphales, Tarquin also won a victory over the Sabines.
Tarquinius later went to war with the Rutuli. According to Livy, the Rutuli were, at that time, a very wealthy nation. Tarquinius was desirous of obtaining the booty which would come with victory over the Rutuli.Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.57 Tarquin unsuccessfully sought to take the Rutulian capital, Ardea, by storm, and subsequently began an extensive siege of the city. The war was interrupted by the revolution which overthrew the Roman monarchy. The Roman army, camped outside Ardea, welcomed Lucius Junius Brutus as their new leader, and expelled the king's sons. It is unclear what was the outcome of the siege, or indeed the war.Livy, Ab urbe condita, 1.57–60
Republic
Early (509–275 BC)
Early Italian campaigns (509–396 BC)
The first non-apocryphal Roman wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 33 Florus writes that at this time "their neighbours, on every side, were continually harassing them, as they had no land of their own ... and as they were situated, as it were, at the junction of the roads to Latium and Etruria, and, at whatever gate they went out, were sure to meet a foe."
In the semi-legendary period of the early republic, sources record Rome was twice attacked by Etruscan armies. About 509 BC war with Veii and Tarquinii was said to have been instigated by the recently overthrown king Tarquinius Superbus.Grant, The History of Rome, p. 32Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.6–7 Again in 508 BC Tarquin persuaded the king of Clusium, Lars Porsenna, to wage war on Rome, resulting in a siege of Rome and afterwards a peace treaty.Florus, Epitome of Roman History, Book 1, ch. 9Livy, Ab urbe condita, 2.9–13