Son of God is a title that has been applied to a wide range of figures in the ancient and modern world, among them kings and emperors, angels, righteous individuals, the people of Israel, and, most prominently in later usage, Jesus. Its sense varies considerably between cultures and religions: in some settings it asserts literal descent from a deity, while in others it is a figurative expression of a close or covenantal relationship with God, or a formula legitimising royal authority.
Rulers in many ancient societies claimed a filial relationship with the divine. The title Son of Heaven (天子) was used by Chinese monarchs from the Western Zhou dynasty onwards under the Mandate of Heaven, and was later adopted by the Emperor of Japan and by rulers among the Eurasian nomads. In the ancient Near East, Egyptian pharaohs were described as sons of particular gods, and kings of Damascus and Sam'al took titles such as son of Hadad or son of Rakib. Greek mythology attributed divine parentage to figures such as Heracles, and Alexander the Great styled himself son of Ammon–Zeus. After the deification of Julius Caesar in 42 BC, Augustus used the title divi filius to strengthen his political position, a precedent followed by later Roman emperors; outside the empire, the Kushan king Kanishka used the equivalent devaputra.
In the Hebrew Bible, "son of God" and "sons of God" describe those standing in a special relationship with God rather than physical descent from him, including the nation of Israel, Solomon, angels, and just or pious men. Second Temple and later Jewish literature applies similar language to messianic and angelic figures, as in the Dead Sea Scrolls texts 4Q246 and 4Q174, Gabriel's Revelation, and works such as Joseph and Aseneth and the Prayer of Joseph. Rabbinic usage referred the term to Israel or to humanity generally, and not to the Jewish mashiach.
In Christianity, the title refers to the status of Jesus as the divine son of God the Father, and is found throughout the New Testament, including all four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Pauline and Johannine literature; it is distinguished from the Trinitarian term "God the Son" and is accepted in some form by nontrinitarian Christians as well. Islam recognises Jesus as a prophet and messenger and as the Messiah, but rejects any kinship between God and another being. In the Baháʼí Faith, the term is applied to Jesus symbolically, indicating the strength of his spiritual relationship with God rather than any physical relationship or a station above other Manifestations of God.
Rulers and imperial titles
Throughout history, emperors and rulers ranging from the Western Zhou dynasty ( 1000 BC) in China to Alexander the Great ( 360 BC) to the Emperor of Japan ( 600 AD) have assumed titles that reflect a filial relationship with deities.Introduction to the Science of Religion by Friedrich Muller 2004 page 136A History of Japan by Hisho Saito 2010 page
The title "Son of Heaven" i.e. 天子 (from 天 meaning sky/heaven/god and 子 meaning child) was first used in the Western Zhou dynasty ( 1000 BC). It is mentioned in the Shijing book of songs, and reflected the Zhou belief that as Son of Heaven (and as its delegate) the Emperor of China was responsible for the well-being of the whole world by the Mandate of Heaven.China : a cultural and historical dictionary by Michael Dillon 1998 page 293East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History by Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais 2008 page 16 This title may also be translated as "son of God" given that the word Tiān in Chinese may either mean sky or god.The Problem of China by Bertrand Russell 2007 page 23 The Emperor of Japan was also called the Son of Heaven (天子 tenshi) starting in the early 7th century.
Among the Eurasian nomads, there was also a widespread use of "Son of God/Son of Heaven" for instance, in the third century BC, the ruler was called Chanyü and similar titles were used as late as the 13th century by Genghis Khan.
Examples of kings being considered the son of god are found throughout the Ancient Near East. Egypt in particular developed a long lasting tradition. Egyptian pharaohs are known to have been referred to as the son of a particular god and their begetting in some cases is even given in sexually explicit detail. Egyptian pharaohs did not have full parity with their divine fathers but rather were subordinate. Nevertheless, in the first four dynasties, the pharaoh was considered to be the embodiment of a god. Thus, Egypt was ruled by direct theocracy, wherein "God himself is recognized as the head" of the state. During the later Amarna Period, King Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten redefined the pharaoh's godship. He taught "there was only one god and only one person who now knew the god: Akhenaten himself" and assumed position of the ḥm ntr tpy (first servant of god). He eventually eliminated all representation on his behalf by the priests of Amun as he also eliminated the god Amun, to solely lead worship identifying as the Son of the God he called Father, the latter which he recognized through the aten (sun), the vehicle through which the power of the God manifested to him. Within a few years of his first epiphany and becoming king, King Akhenaten had dropped the priestly title of ḥm ntr tpy, but remained serving as the sole cleric and son of the Father in his rule of the Two Lands. Later still, the closest Egypt came to the Jewish variant of theocracy was during the reign of Herihor. He took on the role of ruler not as a god but rather as a high-priest and king.
According to the Bible, several kings of Damascus took the title son of Hadad. From the archaeological record a stela erected by Bar-Rakib for his father Panammuwa II contains similar language. The son of Panammuwa II a king of Sam'al referred to himself as a son of Rakib. Rakib-El is a god who appears in Phoenician and Aramaic inscriptions. Panammuwa II died unexpectedly while in Damascus. However, his son the king Bar-Rakib was not a native of Damascus but rather the ruler of Sam'al it is unknown if other rules of Sam'al used similar language.
In Greek mythology, Heracles (son of Zeus) and many other figures were considered to be sons of gods through union with mortal women. From around 360 BC onwards Alexander the Great may have implied he was a demigod by using the title "Son of Ammon–Zeus".
In 42 BC, Julius Caesar was formally deified as "the divine Julius" (divus Iulius) after his assassination. His adopted son, Octavian (better known as Augustus, a title given to him 15 years later, in 27 BC) thus became known as divi Iuli filius (son of the divine Julius) or simply divi filius (son of the god).Early Christian literature by Helen Rhee 2005 pages 159–161 As a daring and unprecedented move, Augustus used this title to advance his political position in the Second Triumvirate, finally overcoming all rivals for power within the Roman state.Augustus by Pat Southern 1998 page 60
The word which was applied to Julius Caesar when he was deified was divus, not the distinct word deus. Thus, Augustus called himself Divi filius, not Dei filius. The line between been god and god-like was at times less than clear to the population at large, and Augustus seems to have been aware of the necessity of keeping the ambiguity.The world that shaped the New Testament by Calvin J. Roetzel 2002 page 73 As a purely semantic mechanism, and to maintain ambiguity, the court of Augustus sustained the concept that any worship given to an emperor was paid to the "position of emperor" rather than the person of the emperor.Experiencing Rome: culture, identity and power in the Roman Empire by Janet Huskinson 1999 page 81 However, the subtle semantic distinction was lost outside Rome, where Augustus began to be worshiped as a deity.A companion to Roman religion edited by Jörg Rüpke 2007 page 80 The inscription DF thus came to be used for Augustus, at times unclear which meaning was intended. The assumption of the title Divi filius by Augustus meshed with a larger campaign by him to exercise the power of his image. Official portraits of Augustus made even towards the end of his life continued to portray him as a handsome youth, implying that miraculously, he never aged. Given that few people had ever seen the emperor, these images sent a distinct message.Gardner's art through the ages: the western perspective by Fred S. Kleiner 2008 page 175
Later, Tiberius (emperor from 14 to 37 AD) came to be accepted as the son of divus Augustus and Hadrian as the son of divus Trajan. By the end of the 1st century, the emperor Domitian was being called dominus et deus (i.e. master and god).The Emperor Domitian by Brian W. Jones 1992 page 108
Outside the Roman Empire, the 2nd-century Kushan King Kanishka I used the title devaputra meaning "son of God".Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations by Charles Higham 2004 page 352
Abrahamic religions The term "Son of God" is used in the Hebrew Bible as another way to refer to humans who have a special relationship with God. In Exodus, the Nation of Israel is called God's firstborn son. Solomon is also called "son of God" (2 Samuel 7:14, 1 Chronicles 28:6). Angels, just and pious men, and the Kings of Israel are called "sons of God" (Genesis 6:2-4, Job 1:6, 2:1, 38:7).
Baháʼí Faith In the writings of the Baháʼí Faith, the term "Son of God" is applied to Jesus, but does not indicate a literal physical relationship between Jesus and God. It is symbolic and is used to indicate the very strong spiritual relationship between Jesus and God and the source of his authority. Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Baháʼí Faith in the first half of the 20th century, also noted that the term does not indicate that the station of Jesus is superior to other prophets and messengers that Baháʼís name Manifestation of God, including Buddha, Muhammad and Baha'u'llah among others. Shoghi Effendi notes that, since all Manifestations of God share the same intimate relationship with God and reflect the same light, the term Sonship can in a sense be attributable to all the Manifestations.
Christianity
In Christianity, the title "Son of God" refers to the status of Jesus as the divine son of God the Father.J. Gordon Melton, Martin Baumann, Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices, ABC-CLIO, USA, 2010, p. 634-635Schubert M. Ogden, The Understanding of Christian Faith, Wipf and Stock Publishers, USA, 2010, p. 74 It derives from several uses in the New Testament and early Christian theology. The term is used in all four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Pauline and Johannine literature.
Another interpretation stems from the Judaic understanding of the title, which describes all human beings as being Sons of God. In parts of the Old Testament, historical figures like Jacob and Solomon are referred to as Sons of God, referring to their descent from Adam. Biblical scholars use this title as a way of affirming Jesus' humanity, that he is fully human, but also sent from his father who is God almighty alone as mentioned in John 3:16.