The Book of Psalms ( , ;"Psalm". Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Pearson. ; ; ; , in Islam also called Zabur, ), also known as the Psalter, is the first book of the third section of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) called ('Writings'), and a book of the Old Testament.
The book is an anthology of Hebrew religious hymns. In the Jewish and Western Christian traditions, there are 150 psalms, and several more in the Eastern Christian churches. The book is divided into five sections, each ending with a doxology, a hymn of praise. There are several types of psalms, including hymns or songs of praise, communal and individual laments, royal psalms, imprecation, and individual thanksgivings. The book also includes psalms of communal thanksgiving, wisdom, pilgrimage, and other categories.
Many of the psalms contain attributions to the name of King David and other Biblical figures, including Asaph, the sons of Korah, Moses, and Solomon. Davidic authorship of the Psalms is not accepted as a historical fact by modern scholars, who view it as a way to link biblical writings to well-known figures; while the dating of the Psalms is "notoriously difficult", some are considered preexilic and others postexilic. The Dead Sea Scrolls suggest that the ordering and content of the later psalms (Psalms 90–150) was not fixed as of the mid-1st century CE.Collins, John J. Introduction to the Hebrew Bible: Third Edition (2018). p. 498. Fortress Press. Septuagint scholars, including Eugene Ulrich, have argued that the Hebrew Psalter was not closed until the 1st century CE.Wilson, Gerald, "King, Messiah, and the Reign of God: Revisiting the Royal Psalms and the Shape of the Psalter." The Book of Psalms: Composition and Reception. p. 394. Brill. 2005.
The English-language title of the book derives from the Greek word (), meaning , and by extension referring to "the words accompanying the music". Its Hebrew name, (), means , as it contains many praises and supplications to God.
Structure
Sections The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with a doxology (i.e., a benediction). These divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of the Torah: Book 1 (Psalms 1–41) Book 2 (Psalms 42–72) Book 3 (Psalms 73–89) Book 4 (Psalms 90–106) Book 5 (Psalms 107–150)
Superscriptions Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster", including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies". Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song", or regarding the occasion of the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple", "For the memorial offering", etc.). Many carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms) being 'of David', and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life. Others named include Asaph (12), the sons of Korah (11), Solomon (2), Moses (1), Ethan the Ezrahite (1), and Heman the Ezrahite (1). The Septuagint, the Peshitta (the Syriac Vulgate), and the Latin Vulgate each associate several Psalms (such as 111 and 145) with Haggai and Zechariah. The Septuagint also attributes several Psalms (like 112 and 135) to Ezekiel and Jeremiah.
Numbering Hebrew numbering(Masoretic) Greek numbering(Septuagint) 1–8 1–8 9–10 9 11–113 10–112 114–115 113 116 114–115 117–146 116–145 147 146–147 148–150 148–150
Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differsmostly by onebetween the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts. Protestant translations use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary: Catholic official liturgical texts, such as the Roman Missal, use the Greek numberingFor example "Psalmus 117" in Vigilia Paschalis in Nocte Sancta, 66 Modern Catholic translations often use the Hebrew numbering (noting the Greek number) Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic translations use the Greek numbering (noting the Hebrew number)
The variance between Masorah and Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is generally admitted that Psalms 9 and 10 (Hebrew numbering) were originally a single acrostic poem, wrongly separated by Massorah and rightly united by the Septuagint and the Vulgate. Psalms 42 and 43 (Hebrew numbering) are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Yahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (comparing Psalms 42:6, 12; 43:5, Hebrew numbering), to be three strophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Psalm 146 and Psalm 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and several other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems the original choral odes: Psalms 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150. A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Psalms 14 and 70. The two strophes and the epode are Psalm 14; the two antistrophes are Psalm 70.Zenner, J.K., and Wiesmann, H., Die Psalmen nach dem Urtext, Munster, 1906, 305 It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Psalm 14 = 53, Psalm 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated portions of psalms are Psalm 108:2–6 = Psalm 57:8–12; Psalm 108:7–14 = Psalm 60:7–14; Psalm 71:1–3 = Psalm 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is considered by the Catholic Church's Pontifical Biblical Commission (1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical practices, neglect by copyists, or other causes.Catholic Encyclopedia, The Biblical Commission, published by New Advent, accessed 19 November 2021
Verse numbers were first printed in 1509. Different traditions exist whether to include the original heading into the counting or not. This leads to inconsistent numbering in 62 psalms, with an offset of 1, sometimes even 2 verses.
Additional psalms The Septuagint, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes a Psalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in the Psalms Scroll of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Some versions of the Peshitta (the Bible used in Syriac churches mainly in the Middle East) include Psalms 152–155. There are also the Psalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek and Syriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms was selected from a wider set.
Primary types Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms—not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the same genre () from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types:
Hymns Hymns are songs of praise for God's work in creation or history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms" celebrating the enthronement of Yahweh as king, and "Zion psalms" glorifying Mount Zion, God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem. Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns" which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).
Communal laments
Communal laments are psalms in which the nation laments some communal disaster. Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements: address to God, description of suffering, cursing of the party responsible for the suffering, protestation of innocence or admission of guilt, petition for divine assistance, faith in God's receipt of prayer, anticipation of divine response, and a song of thanksgiving.Coogan, M. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in its Context. (Oxford University Press: Oxford 2009) p. 370
In general, the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterising an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.
Royal psalms
Royal psalms deal with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage, and battles. None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure; several psalms, especially Psalms 93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king.
Individual laments Individual laments are psalms lamenting the fate of the psalmist. By far the most common type of psalm, they typically open with an invocation of God, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence.
Individual thanksgiving psalms In individual thanksgiving psalms, the opposite of individual laments, the psalmist thanks God for deliverance from personal distress.
In addition to these five major genres, Gunkel also recognised a number of minor psalm-types, including: communal thanksgiving psalms, in which the whole nation thanks God for deliverance; wisdom psalms, reflecting the Hebrew Biblical (Old Testament) wisdom literature; pilgrimage psalms, sung by pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem; entrance and prophetic liturgies; and A group of mixed psalms could not be assigned to any category.
Composition Origins
The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from Psalm 29's composition in the 10th century BCE to others clearly from the post-Exilic period (i.e., not earlier than the 5th century BCE). The majority originated in the southern kingdom of Judah and were associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, where they probably functioned as librettos during Temple worship. Exactly how they did so was unclear, but there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar" suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be set forth before you as incense" suggests a connection with the offering of incense.
According to Jewish tradition, the Book of Psalms was composed by the First Man (Adam), Melchizedek, Abraham, Moses, David, Solomon, Heman, Jeduthun, Asaph, and the three sons of Korah.Babylonian Talmud (Baba Bathra 14b–15a) According to Abraham ibn Ezra, the final redaction of the book was made by the Men of the Great Assembly.
Influences Some of the psalms show influences from related earlier texts from the region; examples include various Ugaritic texts and the Babylonian Enūma Eliš. These influences may be either of background similarity or of contrast. For example, Psalm 29 shares characteristics with Canaanite religious poetry and themes. Robert Alter points out that the address to "sons of God" at the opening "[is] best thought of [as] the flickering literary afterlife of a polytheistic mythology" but that "belief in them...is unlikely to have been shared by the scribal circles that produced Psalms". The contrast between the Psalmist's theology and the surrounding area's polytheistic religion is well seen in Psalms 104:26, in which locals' mythical fierce sea-god—such as the Babylonian Tiamat, Canaanite Yam and the Leviathan which also appears in the Hebrew Bible—is "reduced to an aquatic pet with whom YHWH can play".
Poetic characteristics