Silver mining is the extraction of silver by mining. Silver is a precious metal and holds high economic value. Because silver is often found in intimate combination with other metals, its extraction requires the use of complex technologies. In 2008, approximately 25,900 metric tons of silver were consumed worldwide, most of which came from mining. Silver mining has a variety of effects on the environment, humans, and animals.
Silver sources
Silver-bearing ore typically contains very little silver, with much higher percentages of copper and lead. Specific minerals include argentite (Ag2S), chlorargyrite ("horn silver," AgCl), polybasite (Ag, Cu)16Sb2S11), and proustite (Ag3AsS3).Debnam, Andrew, 2021. Silver. Mindat.org https://www.mindat.org/min-3664.html Silver mainly occurs as a contaminant in chalcopyrite and galena, important ores of copper and lead, respectively.Bevan, J., Clark, A., & Symes, R., The Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Mineral Kingdom: Chapter 5: The Mineral Kingdom. Hamlyn, Toronto, 1978. .Kassianidou, V. 2003. Early Extraction of Silver from Complex Polymetallic Ores, in Craddock, P.T. and Lang, J (eds) Mining and Metal production through the Ages. London, British Museum Press: 198–206
Some ores are actually mined explicitly for their silver value vs. the silver being a by-product of other metals. However, silver is only found rarely in a native form as nuggets, in placer deposits, and veins.
Excavation Methods for mining vary for every body of ore. The chosen method depends on the ore grade, the steepness and shape of the terrain, its depth, host rock, transportation availability, and other economic factors. Commonly, silver ore is obtained from open pit mines, and underground drifts and shafts.Hilliard, Henry E., 2003. "Silver". USGS. Explosives are frequently used to shatter veins into manageable pieces, which are transported via mine cars and then lifted to the surface. This process can be dangerous.Scott, D., & Williams, T, 1994. Investigation of a rock-burst site, SunshineMine, Kellogg, Idaho. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/mining%5C/UserFiles/works/pdfs/irbs.pdf
Ore processing Once removed from the mine, silver-containing ore is crushed (comminution) into a fine powder to expose individual grains to chemical processing. As a byproduct of the mining of lead and copper, silver ores are often purified by froth flotation. After froth flotation, silver is extracted by a cyanide process, akin to technology used for gold extraction. In some cases, the ore is treated by smelting before cyanide treatment. Silver is also produced during the electrolytic refining of copper and by application of the Parkes process on lead ores. Commercial grade fine silver is at least 99.9 percent pure silver, and purities greater than 99.999 percent are available.
Silver scrap processing
Recycling About 5000 tons of silver are annually recovered from scrap. Jewelry, photographic film, silverware, coins, and electronics are sources of recyclable silver. However, jewelry and silverware are not as important of a source of recycled metal compared to electronics and, until the 21st century, photographic film. The main techniques to process silver scrap: electrolysis, metallic replacement, and precipitation. Electrolytic silver recovery refers to the process where silver cations are reduced to their metallic state, adhering to an electrode.
In metallic replacement, a solution of silver thiosulfate is converted to the metallic state by the action of a solid reducing agent, such a steel wool. The equipment in this process is commonly referred to as "metallic recovery cartridges".
Precipitation refers to the process of extracting silver from silver-rich solutions. This technique uses precipitating agents to form silver sulfide in the solution. The precipitation method is not extensively utilized due to the fact that excess sulfide can result in the release of toxic gas.
Production areas The principal sources of silver are copper, copper-nickel, gold, lead, and lead-zinc ores obtained from Canada, Mexico, Poland, Peru, Bolivia, AustraliaAustralia precious metals mining market (gold, silver, diamond) growth and forecasts to 2020. 2014. M2 Presswire, June 26, 2014. and the United States.United States silver mining market overview and forecast to 2020: Trends, fiscal regime, major projects, and competitive landscape. 2012. M2 Presswire, November 20, 2012. 1171392860
Mexico was the world's largest silver producer in 2014, producing 5,000 metric tons (161 million troy ounces), 18.7 percent of the 26,800 tonnes (862 million troy ounce) production of the world. +Top 6 Production Stage Silver Mines (2011)MineCountry2010 Production2020 ProductionCannington Silver/Lead/Zinc MineAustralia38.6 Moz11.792 MozFresnillo Silver MineMexico38.6 Moz13.055 MozSan Cristobal Polymetallic MineBolivia19.4 MozAntamina Copper/Zinc MinePeru14.9 MozRudna Copper MinePoland14.9 MozPeñasquito Polymetallic MineMexico13.9 Moz +Top 6 Near-Term Silver Mine Development Projects Through 2015ProjectCountryAnticipated Annual Production Capacity (due within five years)Pascua LamaChile25.0 MozNavidadArgentina15.0 MozJuanicipioMexico14.0 MozMalku KhotaBolivia13.2 MozHackett RiverCanada13.1 MozCoraniPeru10.0 Moz
Silver mining companies Silver mining companies engage in the discovery and production of silver. While these companies prioritize in silver, many of them also engage in other metals such as gold, palladium, lead, and zinc. +Top 10 Largest Silver Mining Companies Through March 2023 Company nameRevenueNet IncomeExchangeIndustrias Penoles SAB de CV (IPOAF)$5.57 billion$89.25 millionOTCPolymetal International PLC (AUCOY)$2.67 billion$164 millionOTCFresnillo PLC (FNLPF)$2.50 billion$236.46 millionOTCPan American Silver Corp. (PAAS)$1.54 billion$154.956 millionNASDAQWheaton Precious Metals Corp. (WPM)$1.11 billion$794.82 millionNew York Stock ExchangeBuenaventura Mining Co. Inc. (BVN)$831.79 million$351.70 millionNew York Stock ExchangeCoeur Mining Inc. (CDE)$783.40 million$137.96 millionNew York Stock ExchangeFortuna Silver Mines Inc. (FSM)$715.70 million$40.39 millionNew York Stock ExchangeHecla Mining Co. (HL)$709.16 million$21.02 millionNew York Stock ExchangeFirst Majestic Silver Corp. (AG)$684.12 million$101.43 millionNew York Stock Exchange
History
The historical record of silver mining dates back to 3,000 BC in Anatolia. As silver is a precious metal often used for coins and bullion, its mining has historically often been lucrative. As with other precious metals such as gold or platinum, newly discovered deposits of silver ore have sparked silver rushes of miners seeking their fortunes. Silver was a valuable metal that helped early civilizations around Ancient Greece. In recent centuries, large deposits were discovered and mined in the Americas, influencing the growth and development of Mexico, Andean countries such as Bolivia, Chile and Peru, as well as Argentina, Canada and the United States.
Silver is mentioned in the Book of Genesis, and slag heaps found in Asia Minor and on the islands of the Aegean Sea indicate that silver was being separated from lead as early as the 4th millennium BC. By 1,200 BC, silver mining shifted into the mines of Laurion in Greece, and continued growing the surrounding empire. The silver mines at Laurion were very rich and helped provide a currency for the economy of ancient Athens, where the process involved mining the ore in underground galleries, washing and then smelting it to produce the metal. Elaborate washing tables still exist at the site which used rain water held in cisterns and collected during the winter months.
By the year 100 AD, the epicenter of silver mining transitioned into Spain, where the Roman Empire flourished. The Romans took over silver mining in Spain from Carthage after their acquisition of Carthaginian territories there following the Second Punic War. Extraction of silver from lead ore was widespread in Roman Britain very soon after the Roman conquest of the first century AD.
One of the main aims of the Viking expansion throughout Europe was to acquire and trade silver. Bergen and Dublin are still important centres of silver making. An example of a collection of Viking-age silver for trading purposes is the Galloway Hoard.
From the mid-15th century silver began to be extracted from copper ores in massive quantities using the liquation process creating a boost to the mining and metallurgy industries of Central Europe.
Americas
Vast amounts of silver were brought into the possession of the crowns of Europe after the conquest of the Americas from the now Mexican state of Zacatecas (discovered in 1546)Dan Oancea: Low Sulphidation Epithermal Vein Deposits http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/546/silver.sulphidation.epithermal/silver.deposits.–.aspx and Potosí (also discovered in 1546), which triggered the Spanish Price Revolution in Europe. Between 1500 and 1800, Bolivia, Peru, and Mexico made of 85% of the world's total silver production. Silver mining required large amounts of mercury to extract the metal from ore. In the Andes, the source was the Huancavelica mercury mine; Mexico was dependent on mercury from the Almadén mercury mine in Spain. Mercury had a high adverse environmental impact.Nicholas A. Robins, Mercury, Mining, and Empire: The Human and Ecological Cost of Colonial Silver Mining in the Andes. Bloomington: Indiana University Press 2011. https://doi.org/10.1093/envhis/ems086 Silver was extremely valuable in China, and became a global commodity. Manila galleons carried Spanish dollars across the Pacific, contributing to the rise of the Spanish Empire. The rise and fall of its value affected the world market.In the first half of the 19th century Chilean mining revived due to a silver rush in the Norte Chico region, leading to an increased presence of Chileans in the Atacama desert and a shift away from an agriculture based economy.
The country of Argentina was named after its silver resources by Spanish conquistadors; Argentina is a Spanish adjective meaning "silvery".
Silver mining was a driving force in the settlement of western North America,Dan Oancea: Silver Deposits – Carbonate Replacement Deposits http://technology.infomine.com/articles/1/693/silver.deposits.crd/silver.deposits.carbonate.aspx with major booms for silver and associated minerals (lead, mostly) in the galena ore silver is most commonly found in. Notable silver rushes were in Colorado; Nevada; Cobalt, Ontario; California and the Kootenay region of British Columbia; notably in the Boundary and "Silvery" Slocan. A silver rush in Idaho produced mines in an area known as Silver Valley, a handful of which are still active today.Gillerman, Virginia (December 4, 2019). "Idaho Mining and Exploration, 2019"(PDF). Idaho Geological Survey. Retrieved April 23, 2020. The first major silver ore deposits in the United States were discovered at the Comstock Lode in Virginia City, Nevada, in 1859. By the 1870's, silver production had increased from 40 millions ounces per year to 80 million.
From 1872 to 1920, a surge of technological innovation increased global silver production to 120 million ounces produced per year. New silver deposits had been discovered in Australia, Canada, United States, Africa, Mexico, Chile, and Japan, and by the end of 1920, global production surged to 190 million ounces annually. The mining techniques during the 1900's had also dramatically changed. Seam-assisted drilling, mine dewatering, and improved haulage all contributed to the spike in silver production in the 1900's. By 2019, technological innovation has allowed silver production to grow to almost 800 million ounces per year.
Environmental effects of silver mining
Mercury amalgamation