In physics, a hidden-variable theory is a deterministic model which seeks to explain the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics by introducing additional, possibly inaccessible, variables.
The mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics assumes that the state of a system prior to measurement is indeterminate; quantitative bounds on this indeterminacy are expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Most hidden-variable theories are attempts to avoid this indeterminacy, but possibly at the expense of requiring that nonlocal interactions be allowed. One notable, nonlocal hidden-variable theory is the de Broglie–Bohm theory.
In their 1935 EPR paper, Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen argued that quantum entanglement might imply that quantum mechanics is an incomplete description of reality. John Stewart Bell in 1964, in his eponymous theorem proved that correlations between particles under any local hidden variable theory must obey certain constraints. Subsequently, Bell test experiments have demonstrated broad violation of these constraints, ruling out such theories. Bell's theorem, however, does not rule out the possibility of nonlocal hidden variable theories like the de Broglie-Bohm theory.
Motivation Macroscopic physics requires classical mechanics which allows accurate predictions of mechanical motion with reproducible, high precision. Quantum phenomena require quantum mechanics, which allows accurate predictions of statistical averages only. If quantum states had hidden-variables awaiting ingenious new measurement technologies, then arbitrarily high precision results might be possible.
This classical mechanics description would eliminate unsettling characteristics of quantum theory like the uncertainty principle. More fundamentally however, a successful model of quantum phenomena with hidden variables implies quantum entities with intrinsic values independent of measurements. Existing quantum mechanics asserts that state properties can only be known after a measurement. As N. David Mermin puts it: In other words, whereas a hidden-variable theory would imply intrinsic particle properties, in quantum mechanics an electron has no definite position and velocity to even be revealed.
History
"God does not play dice" In June 1926, Max Born published a paper, in which he was the first to clearly enunciate the probabilistic interpretation of the quantum wave function, which had been introduced by Erwin Schrödinger earlier in the year. Born concluded the paper as follows:Born's interpretation of the wave function was criticized by Schrödinger, who had previously attempted to interpret it in real physical terms, but Albert Einstein's response became one of the earliest and most famous assertions that quantum mechanics is incomplete:Niels Bohr reportedly replied to Einstein's later expression of this sentiment by advising him to "stop telling God what to do."This is a common paraphrasing. Bohr recollected his reply to Einstein at the 1927 Solvay Congress in his essay "Discussion with Einstein on Epistemological Problems in Atomic Physics", in Albert Einstein, Philosopher–Scientist, ed. Paul Arthur Shilpp, Harper, 1949, p. 211: "...in spite of all divergencies of approach and opinion, a most humorous spirit animated the discussions. On his side, Einstein mockingly asked us whether we could really believe that the providential authorities took recourse to dice-playing ("ob der liebe Gott würfelt"), to which I replied by pointing at the great caution, already called for by ancient thinkers, in ascribing attributes to Providence in everyday language." Werner Heisenberg, who also attended the congress, recalled the exchange in Encounters with Einstein, Princeton University Press, 1983, p. 117,: "But he [Einstein] still stood by his watchword, which he clothed in the words: 'God does not play at dice.' To which Bohr could only answer: 'But still, it cannot be for us to tell God, how he is to run the world.'"
Early attempts at hidden-variable theories Shortly after making his famous "God does not play dice" comment, Einstein attempted to formulate a deterministic counter proposal to quantum mechanics, presenting a paper at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, on 5 May 1927, titled "Bestimmt Schrödinger's Wellenmechanik die Bewegung eines Systems vollständig oder nur im Sinne der Statistik?" ("Does Schrödinger's wave mechanics determine the motion of a system completely or only in the statistical sense?").The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Volume 15: The Berlin Years: Writings & Correspondence, June 1925-May 1927 (English Translation Supplement), p. 512Albert Einstein Archives reel 2, item 100 However, as the paper was being prepared for publication in the academy's journal, Einstein decided to withdraw it, possibly because he discovered that, contrary to his intention, his use of Schrödinger's field to guide localized particles allowed just the kind of non-local influences he intended to avoid.
At the Fifth Solvay Congress, held in Belgium in October 1927 and attended by all the major theoretical physicists of the era, Louis de Broglie presented his own version of a deterministic hidden-variable theory, apparently unaware of Einstein's aborted attempt earlier in the year. In his theory, every particle had an associated, hidden "pilot wave" which served to guide its trajectory through space. The theory was subject to criticism at the Congress, particularly by Wolfgang Pauli, which de Broglie did not adequately answer; de Broglie abandoned the theory shortly thereafter.
Declaration of completeness of quantum mechanics, and the Bohr–Einstein debates
Also at the Fifth Solvay Congress, Max Born and Werner Heisenberg made a presentation summarizing the recent tremendous theoretical development of quantum mechanics. At the conclusion of the presentation, they declared:Although there is no record of Einstein responding to Born and Heisenberg during the technical sessions of the Fifth Solvay Congress, he did challenge the completeness of quantum mechanics at various times. In his tribute article for Born's retirement he discussed the quantum representation of a macroscopic ball bouncing elastically between rigid barriers. He argues that such a quantum representation does not represent a specific ball, but "time ensemble of systems". As such the representation is correct, but incomplete because it does not represent the real individual macroscopic case. Einstein considered quantum mechanics incomplete "because the state function, in general, does not even describe the individual event/system".
Von Neumann's proof John von Neumann in his 1932 book Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics had presented a proof that there could be no "hidden parameters" in quantum mechanics. The validity of von Neumann's proof was questioned by Grete Hermann in 1935, who found a flaw in the proof. The critical issue concerned averages over ensembles. Von Neumann assumed that a relation between the expected values of different observable quantities holds for each possible value of the "hidden parameters", rather than only for a statistical average over them. However Hermann's work went mostly unnoticed until its rediscovery by John Stewart Bell more than 30 years later.Hermann, G.: Die naturphilosophischen Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik (Auszug). Abhandlungen der Fries'schen Schule 6, 75–152 (1935). English translation: Chapter 15 of "Grete Hermann — Between physics and philosophy", Elise Crull and Guido Bacciagaluppi, eds., Springer, 2016, 239- 278. [Volume 42 of Studies in History and Philosophy of Science]
The validity and definitiveness of von Neumann's proof were also questioned by Hans Reichenbach, and possibly in conversation though not in print by Albert Einstein. Reportedly, in a conversation circa 1938 with his assistants Peter Bergmann and Valentine Bargmann, Einstein pulled von Neumann's book off his shelf, pointed to the same assumption critiqued by Hermann and Bell, and asked why one should believe in it. Simon Kochen and Ernst Specker rejected von Neumann's key assumption as early as 1961, but did not publish a criticism of it until 1967.
EPR paradox
Einstein argued that quantum mechanics could not be a complete theory of physical reality. He wrote,
Together with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, Einstein published a paper that gave a related but distinct argument against the completeness of quantum mechanics. They proposed a thought experiment involving a pair of particles prepared in what would later become known as an entangled state. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen pointed out that, in this state, if the position of the first particle were measured, the result of measuring the position of the second particle could be predicted. If instead the momentum of the first particle were measured, then the result of measuring the momentum of the second particle could be predicted. They argued that no action taken on the first particle could instantaneously affect the other, since this would involve information being transmitted faster than light, which is impossible according to the theory of relativity. They invoked a principle, later known as the "EPR criterion of reality", positing that: "If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of reality corresponding to that quantity." From this, they inferred that the second particle must have a definite value of both position and of momentum prior to either quantity being measured. But quantum mechanics considers these two observables incompatible and thus does not associate simultaneous values for both to any system. Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen therefore concluded that quantum theory does not provide a complete description of reality.
Bohr answered the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen challenge as follows:
Bohr is here choosing to define a "physical reality" as limited to a phenomenon that is immediately observable by an arbitrarily chosen and explicitly specified technique, using his own special definition of the term 'phenomenon'. He wrote in 1948:
This was, of course, in conflict with the EPR criterion of reality.
Bell's theorem
In 1964, John Stewart Bell showed through his famous theorem that if local hidden variables exist, certain experiments could be performed involving quantum entanglement where the result would satisfy a Bell inequality. If, on the other hand, statistical correlations resulting from quantum entanglement could not be explained by local hidden variables, the Bell inequality would be violated. Another no-go theorem concerning hidden-variable theories is the Kochen–Specker theorem.
Physicists such as Alain Aspect and Paul Kwiat have performed experiments that have found violations of these inequalities up to 242 standard deviations. This rules out local hidden-variable theories, but does not rule out non-local ones. Theoretically, there could be experimental problems that affect the validity of the experimental findings.
Gerard 't Hooft has disputed the validity of Bell's theorem on the basis of the superdeterminism loophole and proposed some ideas to construct local deterministic models.
The many-worlds interpretation loophole allows the local, realist theory to violate Bell inequalities due to there being more than one experimental outcome in the interpretation.
Bohm's non-local hidden-variable theory