Sivatherium ("Shiva's beast", from Shiva and therium, Latinized form of Ancient Greek θηρίον - thēríon) is an extinct genus of giraffid that lived in India, Pakistan, Chad, Kenya, Tunisia, Ethiopia, Morocco, South Africa, Malawi, Kazakhstan, Spain, Tajikistan, Tanzania and Uganda. The species Sivatherium giganteum is, by weight, one of the largest giraffids known, and also one of the largest ruminants of all time. Sivatherium originated during the Late Miocene (around 7 million years ago) in Africa and survived through to the late Early Pleistocene (Calabrian) until around 1 million years ago.
Description
Sivatherium resembled the modern okapi, but was far larger, and more heavily built, being about tall at the shoulder, in total height with a weight up to . A newer estimate has come up with an estimated average body mass of about , with a range of . This would make Sivatherium one of the largest known ruminants, rivalling the modern giraffe and the largest bovines. Sivatherium had a wide, antler-like pair of ossicones on its head, and a second pair of ossicones above its eyes. Its shoulders were very powerful to support the neck muscles required to lift the heavy skull. Sivatherium was initially misidentified as an archaic link between modern ruminants and the now obsolete, polyphyletic "pachyderms" (elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses and tapirs). The confusion arose in part due to its graviportal (robust) morphology, which was unlike anything else studied at that time.
Palaeobiology A dental wear analysis of S. hendeyi from the Early Pliocene of South Africa found that the teeth were brachyodont, but had a higher hypsodonty than a giraffe, and that it was best classified as a mixed feeder, being able to both graze and browse. Analysis of dental microwear and mesowear paired with δ13C and δ18O measurements of S. maurusium from Ahl al Oughlam in western Morocco show it predominantly fed on C3 vegetation.
Palaeopathology The osteohistology of S. hendeyi specimens from the Langebaanweg site in South Africa shows numerous interruptions in growth related to extended, non-cyclical stress events likely related to drought, fire, or flooding that decreased food availability.
Paleoecology Locations of fossils Fossils attributed to Sivatherium are known from several localities in Eurasia and Africa. SpeciesFormationCountryContinentSivatherium maurusium Hadar Formation Africa Koobi Fora Nkondo Formation Sivatherium giganteum Tatrot Formation AsiaPinjor FormationAsiaKarewa formationAsiaNagrota FormationAsia Sivatherium hendeyiVarswater FormationAfricaKanapoi FormationAfricaToros-Menalla (TM 266)AfricaCigarron FormationEurope Sivatherium sp.Chiwondo BedsAfricaFLK I-Level 13AfricaWembere-Manonga FormationAfricaKaiso Village FormationAfricaKonsoAfricaAdu-Asa FormationAfricaBouri-HataAfricaDouariaAfricaLissasfaAfricaPinjor FormationAsiaKuruksayAsiaPavlodarAsia
Relationship with humans Remains of Sivatherium from Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, dating to around 1.35 million years ago have been found associated with stone tools and bearing cut marks, indicating butchery by archaic humans, likely Homo erectus. Historically, it has been suggested that figurines from Sumer and ancient rock paintings in the Sahara and Central West India represent Sivatherium. However, these claims are not substantiated by fossil evidence (which suggest that the genus was extinct long before the emergence of modern humans), and the depictions likely represent other animals.
See also
Bramatherium Vishnutherium Prolibytherium
References
Further reading
Barry Cox, Colin Harrison, R.J.G. Savage, and Brian Gardiner. (1999): The Simon & Schuster Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Creatures: A Visual Who's Who of Prehistoric Life. Simon & Schuster. David Norman. (2001): The Big Book Of Dinosaurs. pg. 228, Walcome books. After the Dinosaurs: The Age of Mammals (Life of the Past) by Donald R. Prothero The Evolution of Artiodactyls by Donald R. Prothero and Scott E. Foss Vertebrate Palaeontology by Michael J. Benton and John Sibbick Evolving Eden: An Illustrated Guide to the Evolution of the African Large Mammal Fauna by Alan Turner and Mauricio Anton Classification of Mammals by Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell \ The Book of Life: An Illustrated History of the Evolution of Life on Earth, Second Edition by Stephen Jay Gould World Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs & Prehistoric Creatures: The Ultimate Visual Reference To 1000 Dinosaurs And Prehistoric Creatures Of Land, Air And Sea ... And Cretaceous Eras (World Encyclopedia) by Dougal Dixon Eyewitness: Prehistoric Life by William Lindsay Walker's Mammals of the World (2-Volume Set) (Walker's Mammals of the World) by Ronald M. Nowak Horns, Tusks, and Flippers: The Evolution of Hoofed Mammals by Donald R. Prothero and Robert M. Schoch